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anatomy final
| Question/Term | Answer/Definition |
|---|---|
| hormones | body's chemical messengers |
| what can hormone levels be influenced by? | stress, infection, changes in fluid and minerals in blood |
| does the endocrine system have ducts? | no |
| lipid-soluble hormones | molecules, like steroid hormones, that diffuses through the phospholipid bilayer and easily cross plasma membranes and into the cell's cytoplasm and nucleus |
| water-soluble hormones | hormones are that cannot diffuse through the lipid bilayer and are typically made of amino acids and proteins |
| what do hormones bind to? | receptor, located in the cytoplasm or nucleus |
| if a gene is turned on | changes the cell's activities by directing the production of new mRNA and new proteins that alter the function of the cell |
| if a gene is turned off | no new proteins are synthesized and cells' activity is altered |
| anterior pituitary/adenohypophysis | secretory portion of the gland, produces its own hormones, releases or inhibits hormone release by chemical stimulus from hypothalamic neurons traveling through the hypophyseal portal system |
| hypophyseal portal system order | primary capillary plexus-->hypophseal portal veins-->secondary capillary plexus |
| prolactin | stimulates breast milk production after childbirth |
| growth hormone (GH) | stimulates growth in childhood, maintaining healthy muscles and bone in adults |
| adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) | stimulates production of cortisol (fights stress), controls the blood pressure and sugar levels under stressful conditions such as surgery, illness, or injury |
| thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) | regulates metabolism, energy balance, growth, and nervous system activity |
| luteinizing hormone (LH) | stimulates Leydig cells to make testosterone and ovulation |
| follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) | stimulates Sertoli cells to promote sperm production and stimulates ovaries to produce estrogen and develop eggs |
| melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) | stimulates the production of melanin pigment which helps to protect the skin from UV rays |
| posterior pituitary/neurohypophysis | stores and releases ADH and oxytocin, which are produced in the hypothalamus |
| infundibulum (brain) | stalk-like connection of the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland that contains nerves cells and blood vessels |
| antidiuretic hormone (ADH)/vasopressin | regulates water balance in the body and sodium levels in the blood, increases permeability of collecting duct |
| oxytocin | stimulates milk flow during breastfeeding, promotes labour, promotes bonding between mother and child |
| thyroid | two large lobes connected by the isthmus, inferior to larynx and surrounding trachea, ability to remove iodine from the blood |
| thyroid hormone | major metabolic hormone |
| T4 | thyroxine |
| T3 | triiodothyronine |
| calcitonin | peptide hormone that lowers blood calcium levels in children |
| parathyroid | 4 embedded glands on posterior surface of thyroid gland, 2 superior & inferior glands attached to each lateral thyroid lobe |
| parathyroid hormone (PTH) | increases blood calcium levels and decreases blood phosphate levels |
| adrenal gland | sit atop each kidney, made of adrenal cortex (zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculta, zona reticularis) and adrenal medulla |
| mineralocorticoids (ZG) | aldosterone, stimulated by angiotensin II, regulates salt and water balance in blood |
| glucocorticoids (ZF) | cortisol, weak androgens, stimulated by adrenal corticotrophic hormone, suppresses immune response and regulates carb metabolism |
| weak androgens (ZR) | dehydroepiandrosterone, stimulated by adrenal corticotrophic hormone, precursor for testosterone production |
| catecholamines (adrenal medulla) | epinephrine and norepinephrine, secreted by preganglionic sympathetic neurons, increases heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure, constricts vessels |
| pancreas | flattened organ, located in the curve of duodenum |
| exocrine function of pancreas | produces digestive enzymes, releases through pancreatic duct |
| endocrine function of pancreas | pancreatic islets with 4 different cell types |
| alpha cells | secrete glucagon to raise blood sugar levels |
| beta cells | secrete insulin to lower blood sugar levels |
| delta cells | secretes somatostatin to inhibit secretion of insulin and glucagon |
| F cells | secrete pancreatic polypeptide to inhibit somatostatin secretion |
| ovaries | paired, produce estrogen and progesterone, regulates menstrual cycle, maintains pregnancy, prepares mammary glands for lactation, produces relaxin to loosen pelvic ligaments during childbirth |
| testes | produces testosterone, stimulates descent of testes before birth, regulates sperm production, stimulates development of secondary sex characteristics |
| pineal gland | located between cerebral hemispheres, secretes melatonin, contributes to circadian rhythm |
| thymus gland | lies behind sternum, secretes thymosin, promotes maturation of T-lymphocytes (WBC that destroys microbes and pathogens) |
| Grave's disease/hyperthyroidism | elevated metabolic rate, abnormal weight loss, excessive perspiration, muscle weakness, protrusion of the eyes, goiter |
| Addison's disease/hyposecretion of cortical hormones | low blood sodium levels, high blood potassium levels, low blood glucose levels, dehydration, low BP, bronzing of skin, electrolyte imbalance |
| Cushing's disease/hypersecretion of cortical hormones | increases blood sodium levels, water retention, moon face, increase in sex hormones, buffalo hump, osteoporosis, hypertension, abdominal stretch marks, bruise easily |
| type 1 diabetes | insufficient insulin, hereditary, destruction of pancreatic beta cells |
| type 2 diabetes | genetic and environmental factors, most common, high blood sugar |
| gestational diabetes | diabetes brought on by hormonal changes during pregnancy |
| hyperglycemia | increase in concentration of blood sugar |
| glycosuria | kidneys begin to secrete excess sugar in urine |
| polyuria | increased urine output, kidneys cannot reabsorb water |
| polydipsia | excessive thirst |
| polyphagia | excessive hunger, body begins to use fat and protein for energy |
| hypernea | rapid breathing |
| scrotum | 3 degrees C cooler, originate near kidneys at 8th fetal month |
| cryptorchidism | one or both testes fail to descend |
| cremaster muscle | skeletal muscle, elevates testes closer to body to warm |
| dartos muscle | smooth muscle, contraction tightens scrotum to make smaller surface area for heat loss |
| tunica vaginalis | outer layer of testes |
| tunica albuginea | inner layer of testes |
| how many lobules are there per teste? | about 250 |
| seminiferous tubule | site of sperm production |
| Leydig cells | site of testosterone production |
| rete testis | where sperm enter before epididymis |
| epididymis | site for final maturation of the sperm, where immature sperm are stored, smooth muscle |
| how long does spermatogenesis take? | 65-75 days |
| spermatogonium | 2n-diploid, dormant in testes, increases in # at puberty, mitosis |
| primary spermatocyte | 2n-diploid, undergoes reductive division, meiosis I |
| secondary spermatocyte | n-haploid, undergoes meiosis II |
| spermatid | n-haploid, transforms into mature sperm through spermiogenesis |
| spermatazoa | n-haploid, mature sperm, half are X bearing and half are Y bearing |
| spermiogenesis | spermatids-->mature sperm, no cell division, spherical-->elongated, acrosome forms, flagellum develop, mitochondria increases, excess cytoplasm is removed, enters lumen of seminiferous tubule |
| acrosome | hyaluronidase (enzyme), contains pores for release to penetrate a secondary oocyte |
| head of sperm | contains nucleus, 23 chromosomes |
| body of sperm | mitochondria supplies energy for sperm |
| tail of sperm | propels sperm through fluid |
| inhibin | hormone that inhibits FSH release |
| what can cause low sperm count and abnormal sperm? | alcoholism, drugs, diet, injury, high temperature, infection, inflammation, chemicals, radiation, toxins, PVC's, pesticides, lead |
| seminal vesicles | paired on posterior wall of bladder, 60% of semen volume, yellowish, fructose for energy, prostaglandins for sperm motility |
| prostate | encircle upper part of urethra, swelling compresses urethra and can cause prostatitis, 25% of semen volume, milky white, ATP, prostatic specific antigen |
| bulbourethral gland/Cowper's gland | paired, size of a pea, 15% of semen volume, alkaline secretions, neutralizes acidic urine in urethra, mucous |
| ductus/vas deferens | 18 in long, joins seminal vesicle to form ejaculatory duct |
| urethra | terminal portion, prostatic and membranous |
| vasectomy | small incision into scrotum, vas deferens are cut, sperm are still produced but cannot travel exterior to body, semen is still produced, can be reversed |
| broad ligament | mesovarium, mesoalpinx, mesometrium |
| suspensory ligament | holds the ovary |
| corpus luteum | produces progesterone after ovulation |
| corpus albicans | degenerated corpus luteum |
| ovarian follicles | consists of oocyte and follicle cells |
| oogonium | 2n, mitosis |
| primary oocyte | 2n, enters meiosis I, remains dormant until puberty |
| secondary oocyte | n, division of cytoplasm, produces 1st polar body |
| polar body | 1/2 of the chromosomes |
| secondary oocyte | stops in metaphase II, ovulated, only X |
| uterine/fallopian tubes | oviducts, movement of fimbriae moves oocyte to uterus |
| ampulla | site of fertilization |
| isthmus | constricts |
| gonorrhea | caused by bacteria neisseria gonorrhoeae |
| syphilis | caused by bacteria treponema pallidum, congenital |
| chlamydia | caused by bacteria chlamydia trachomatis, newborn can contact from birth canal |
| trichomoniasis | caused by parasite trichomonas vaginalis |
| HPV | human papilloma virus, can lead to cervical cancer |
| uterus | receives, retains, and nourishes fertilized egg |
| perimetrium | outer/serous layer of uterus |
| myometrium | muscular layer, influenced by oxytocin for childbirth |
| endometrium | inner layer, well vascularized |
| stratum basalis | consists of permanent tissue that remains through each cycle and serves as sources for cells during regrowth of the stratum functionalis |
| stratum functionalis | shed during menstruation and regenerates from the underlying stratum basalis |
| spiral arteries | retract into the stratum basalis and constrict to limit blood loss during menstruation, extend again when the stratum functionalis regenerates |
| vagina | fibromuscular tube, goes from exterior to cervix, passageway for menstrual flow and childbirth, receives penis during sexual intercourse, pH of 3.5 - 4 |
| ovulation predictor test | detects surge in LH in the urine that occurs 24-36 hours before ovulation |
| hCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin) | hormone released by a forming placenta |
| copper IUD (intrauterine device) | long-term, reversible, copper which is toxic to sperm |
| hormonal IUD | uses progestin to thicken cervical mucous |
| male condom | collects sperm and semen, protects against STI's |
| female condom | inserted into vagina prior to intercourse, prevents semen and sperm from entering into vagina |
| oral contraceptives | estrogen and progestin to inhibit ovulation, prohibits development of follicles |
| birth control injection | used every three months, releases progestin to stop egg from leaving ovary, thicken cervical mucous |
| contraceptive patch | placed on skin, delivers estrogen and progestin |
| birth control implant | contains progestin, used up to 3 years, inserted by physician |
| morning after pill/Plan B contraceptive | contains estrogen and progestin, inhibits FSH and LH to delay or prevent ovulation, induces shedding of uterine lining, taken right after unprotected intercourse, does not prevent STI's |
| how many sperm are ejaculated at a time? | 200-300 million |
| how many sperm are left by the ampulla? | 200 |
| fertilization | uniting of egg and sperm in ampulla, occurs 12-24 hours after ovulation |
| capacitation | creating pores in the acrosome |
| corona radiata | outer layer of secondary oocyte |
| zona pellucida | inner layer of secondary oocyte |
| polyspermy | fertilization by more than 1 sperm |
| when is sex determined? | at time of fertilization |
| cleavage | repeated mitotic division of zygote, begins about 30 hours after fertilization, rapid increase in number of cells (blastomeres), occurs as the zygote passes along the uterine tube to the uterus, zygote lies within the zona pellucida |
| blastocyst stage | end of the 4th day of cleavage, trophoblast is the outer cell mass that becomes the placenta, embryoblast is the inner cell mass that becomes the embryo |
| dizygotic/fraternal twins | ovary releases two eggs at the same time, a different sperm for each egg, share the same percentage of chromosomes as a sibling, can be different sexes |
| monozygotic/identical twins | ovary releases one egg and one single sperm fertilizes the egg, zygote divides into 2 embryos during cleavage, each twin shares the same genetic information, always the same sex |
| ectoderm | outer germ layer, becomes epidermis, sweat glands, nervous system, sensory system, pituitary gland, adrenal medulla, jaws, teeth, germ cells |
| mesoderm | middle germ layer, becomes skeletal system, muscular system, circulatory system, lymphatic system, excretory system, reproductive system, dermis, adrenal cortex |
| endoderm | inner germ layer, becomes epithelial lining of digestive tract and associated organs, epithelial lining of respiratory, excretory and reproductive tracts and ducts, thymus, thyroid, parathyroid |
| intrauterine sites | normal site of implantation, alone dorsal wall of endometrium of uterus |
| extrauterine sites | implantation occurs outside of uterus, happens most often in the uterine tubes, can be caused by STI's like gonorrhea due to scar tissue blocking oviducts or reversal of tubal ligation |
| ectopic pregnancy | implantation outside of uterus, can cause rupture of tubes, hemorrhaging, can become parasitic |
| quadruple/triple screening | blood test from mother 15-20 weeks into pregnancy |
| elevated levels of HCG | Down's syndrome |
| elevated levels of AFP (alpha-fetaprotein) | neural tube defects/spina bifida |
| low levels of AFP (alpha-fetaprotein) | risk of Down's syndrome |
| low levels of estriol | Down's syndrome |
| elevated levels of inhibin A/placental hormone | Down's syndrome |
| chorionic villi sampling | 30 mg of placental tissue is sampled, done in first trimester, tests for chromosomal abnormalities, genetic disorders, genetic defects |
| amniocentesis | needle inserted into abdomen into amniotic sac, withdraws amniotic fluid surrounding embryo, performed around 14-18 weeks, tests of genetic disorders, neural tube defect/spina bifida |
| 5 week embryo | 1.5 mm, about the size of a strawberry seed, rapid brain development, heart begins development as a simple tube, neural tubes begins development of spinal cord, embryonic layers being laid down |
| 7 week embryo | 10 mm long, head growing faster than rest of body, heartbeat can be detected at 90-110 bpm, internal organs taking shape, face is forming ear buds and large eyes, has leg and arm buds |
| 9-10 week fetus | becomes fetus at 8 weeks, 3.5 cm long, about the size of a prune, tooth buds forming, digestive juices in stomach, bones and cartilage forming, arms forming with elbows and can flex |
| 17 week fetus | 5.1 in and 5.9 oz, cartilage becomes bone, sucking reflex, heart is pumping blood, development of vernix (slick, white substance that forms a barrier for the skin to protect it from the amniotic fluid), eyelashes, eyebrows, toenails, fingerprints |
| 34 week fetus | 4.7 lbs and 17.7 in, immune system is developing, can swallow up to 1 liter of amniotic fluid a day and pass urine, big kicks and roll over, bones get harder, skull is still soft, most organs are fully formed except lungs |
| third trimester | baby continues gaining weight tp be 5-10 lbs, vertex position for vaginal birth near the end of pregnancy/33-36 weeks |
| breech | baby is feet first |
| caesarean section | baby delivered through incision in mother's abdomen and uterus |
| functions of the urinary system | regulates various ions in the blood, regulates water content in the blood by increasing or decreasing blood volume and BP, maintains pH of blood, retains important nutrients, secretes hormones for RBC production, eliminates urea and waste |
| kidneys | bean shaped, located retroperitoneally, lateral to T12-L3 vertebrae, R is lower than L, levels change during respiration and postural changes, about 12 cm tall and 5 oz |
| renal capsule | layer closest to kidney |
| adipose capsule | fatty layer, protects against injury |
| renal fascia | outermost fibrous layer |
| renal hilium | entry and exit point of blood vessels, nerves, and ureter |
| nephron | functional unit of the kidney, over 1 million per kidney, forms urine |
| renal corpuscle | includes glomerular/Bowman's capsule and glomerulus |
| glomerulus | tuft of capillaries |
| flow of fluid through a cortical nephron | Bowman's capsule-->proximal convoluted tubule-->descending limb of the loop of Henle-->ascending limb of the loop of Henle-->distal convoluted tubule-->drains into collecting duct |
| renal cortex | contains renal corpuscle, PCT, and DCT |
| renal medulla | contains loop of Henle |
| fenestrations | pores, prevents filtration of blood cells into Bowman's capsule |
| basal lamina | prevents filtration of larger proteins into Bowman's capsule |
| slit membrane | prevents filtration of medium sized proteins into Bowman's capsule |
| glomerular filtration | water and solutes pass from the blood plasma into Bowman's capsule with the use of pressure |
| juxtaglomerular cells | mechanoreceptors that synthesize, store, and secrete renin |
| renin | enzyme released when BP is low |
| macula densa | chemoreceptors that sense changes in NaCl concentration and send signals to JG cells to regulate renin release |
| juxtaglomerular apparatus | JG cells together with macula densa regulates BP within the kidneys by reabsorption (holding back) Na+ and water, in order to increase BP |
| mesangial cells | surround glomerular capillaries, have phagocytic activity for protection against pathogens |
| urinary tract infection | infections that affects the urinary tract, commonly caused by bacteria entering the urethra and spreading, more common in women due to shorter urethra and proximity to anus |
| pyelitis | inflammation of the renal pelvis, often from a bacterial infection, can lead to more serious conditions |
| pyelonephritis | infection and inflammation of the entire kidney |
| blood flow of the renal system | renal artery->segmental arteries->interlobar arteries->arcuate arteries->interlobular arteries-> afferent arterioles->glomerular capillaries->efferent arterioles->peritubular capillaries-> interlobular veins->arcuate veins->interlobar veins->renal vein |
| how many gallons of blood derived fluid is processed in the kidneys a day? | 47 gallons |
| tubular reabsorption | take back some components from fluid to blood, can be passive and active, occurs from PCT to the blood |
| tubular secretion | some components are taken up from blood to fluid, occurs in DCT |
| glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure (GBHP) | 55 mmHg |
| capsular hydrostatic pressure (CHP) | 15 mmHg |
| blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP) | 30 mmHg |
| net filtration pressure | = GBHP - CHP - BCOP |
| peritubular capillaries | tiny blood vessels supplied by the efferent arteriole that travel alongside nephrons, allows reabsorption of non-filterable components into nearby venules |
| vasa recta | blood capillaries surrounding the loop of Henle, plays a role in the concentration of urine |
| osmolarity | measurement of solute concentration, number of dissolved particles per liter |
| urine flow from collecting duct | collecting duct-->minor calyx-->major calyx-->renal pelvis-->ureter-->bladder-->urethra |
| micturition | urination |
| what is the urinary bladder made of? | transitional epithelium in order to expand and hold up to 1 pint of urine |
| reason for yellow color of urine | urochrome pigment from breakdown of hemoglobin via bilirubin |
| how much urine is made a day? | 1.8 liters |
| diuretics | increase urine volume by inhibiting suffiecient reabsorption of water to the blood from kidney tubules |
| odor of urine | slightly aromatic, ammonia odor develops from outside bacteria |
| pH of urine | 6, affected by diet, |
| brown urine | fava beans, antibiotics, OTC laxative |
| light brown urine | kidney failure, muscle breakdown from extreme exercise |
| orange urine | vitamin C, carotene from carrots, antibiotics for TB, liver disease |
| red or pink urine | beets, berries, blood |
| blue or green urine | food coloring, vitamin B, medications |
| cloudy urine | infection |
| normal constituents of urine | water, urea, sodium, potassium, phosphate ions, sulfate ions, creatinine, uric acid, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate ions |
| abnormal constituents of urine | glucose, proteins, pus, RBC, hemoglobin, bile pigment |
| glucosuria | glucose in the urine, caused by diabetes mellitus |
| proteinuria/albuminuria | proteins in urine, caused by physical exertion, pregnancy, kindey damage |
| pyuria | pus (WBC and bacteria) in the urine, caused by UTI |
| hematuria | RBC in the urine, bleeding in the urinary tract |
| hemoglobinuria | hemoglobin in the urine, caused by transfusion reaction, hemolytic anemia |
| bilirubinuria | bile pigments in urine, caused by liver disease/hepatitis |
| erythropoietin (EPO) | produced by kidneys from inadequate oxygen supply |
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