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A&P 2-Exam 4
Chapters 24, 25, and 28
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Structure and function of kidneys | -2/kidneys -regulate blood volume and composition -help regulate blood pressure -synthesize glucose -release erythropoietin, Renin, Calcitriol -participate in Vitamin D synthesis -excrete wastes and foreign substances in urine |
| Blood Flow in the Kidney | -Aorta->Renal artery->Segmental a.->interlobar a.->Arcuate a.->interlobular a. ->afferent arteriole->glomerulus->efferent arteriole->peritubular capillaries and vasa recta->cortical radiate vein->arcuate vein->inter lobar vein-> renal vein-> IVC |
| Nephrons and Vessels- peritubular capillaries & vasa recta | -pertubular capillaries-associated with convoluted tubules -vasa recta-associated with nephron loop |
| Nephron: Structure & function | -consists of renal corpuscle-enlarged bulbous, portion of nephron housed w/in renal cortex and renal tubule-makes up remaining part of nephron and consist of simple epithelium resting on a basement membrane -functional filtration unit of the kidneys |
| Renal corpuscle | -glomerulus-thick tangle of capillary loops and also called glomerular capillaries -glomerular capsule-formed by 2 layers, permeable visceral layer and external impermeable parietal layer |
| Juxtaglomerular apparatus | -macula dense-detect changes Na/Cl conc. of fluid in lumen of DCT, signal juxtaglomerular cells to release renin through paracrine stimulation -juxtaglomerular cells-wall of afferent arteriole contains smooth muscle cells, regulates bp in the kidneys |
| Renal tubule | -PCT-proximal convoluted tubule -nephron loop -DCT-distal convoluted tubule |
| Types of nephrons | -Cortical-85 %, located in the outer cortex of the kidney-involved in filtrations and reabsorption of nutrients/water -Juxtamedullary-15%, found near the junction of the cortex/medulla-cruical for concentrating urine and regulating electrolyte balance |
| 3 processes of urine formation: | -Glomerular filtration-movement of substances from blood w/in the glomerulus into the capsular space -tubular reabsorption-movement of substances from tubular fluid back into blood -tubular secretion-movement of substances from blood into tubular fluid |
| Glomerular filtration | -NFP- total pressure that promotes filtration -Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)-amt of filtrate formed in all renal corpuscles of both kidneys/minute -Regulation of GFR-renal auto regulation/intrinsic and neural and hormonal control/extrinsic |
| Pressures of Filtration | -Glomerular hydrostatic pressure (HPg) - 60 mm Hg out -Blood colloid osmotic pressure (OPg) - 32 mm Hg in -Capsular hydrostatic pressure (HPc) - 18 mm Hg in -Net filtration pressure (NFP) = 10 mm Hg out NFP = HPg - (OPg + HPc) + 10 mm Hg |
| Filtration membrane | -the glomerulus, a 3 layered barrier that selectively filters blood, allowing water, ions, small molecules, and some proteins to pass through while preventing larger molecules like plasma proteins |
| Tubular reabsorption | -Reabsorption routes/transcellular-involves substances moving from tubules into blood, paracellular-movement between the cells -Transport mechanisms-transcellular-movement of substances across an epithelial cell, paracellular-between epithelial cells |
| Tubular secretion | -Substances filtered -reabsorbed/nutrients and filtered plasma proteins -secreted/potassium ions, ammonium ions, creatine, urea, and some drugs |
| Hormonal regulation of tubular reabsorption and secretion | -primarily by influencing sodium and water balance -decreases w/extensive sympathetic -key hormones incude ADH, aldosterone, ANP, parathyroid hormone, and angiotensin II |
| Urine production | -process by which the kidneys filter blood and excrete waste products and excess water as urine |
| Interstitial Fluid Concentration Gradient | -nephron loop is a countercurrent multiplier -vasa recta is a countercurrent exchange |
| Countercurrent exchange | -vasa recta blood flow is in opposite direction of tubular fluid flow in Loop of Henele -NaCl moves from ascending limb-->vasa recta -->descending limb based on NaCl concentration in interstitial fluid |
| Countercurrent multiplication | -juxtamedullary nephrons fluid reverses direction-->positive feedback -salt increase in interstitial fluid means more H2O moves out the descending limb -salt increase in tubule means more salt pumped out |
| Factors that influence urine volume | -decrease in ADH -decrease in aldosterone -increase in ANP -increase in fluid intake -increase in bp -diabetes mellitus and diuretics (medications and alcohol) |
| Evaluation of normal kidney function | -volume/1-2 L in 24 hours -color/yellow or amber -turbidity/transparent when freshly voided -odor/mildly aromatic but becomes ammonia-like -pH/4.6 to 8 -specific gravity/1.001 to 1.035, higher the concentration then higher specific gravity |
| Diuretics | -reduce reabsorption of water and increase urine output -diuresis/increased urine flow/output -caffeine, alcohol, thiazides, and lasix |
| Structure and function of Ureters | -2/Ureters -transport urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder -flow is peristaltic waves, hydrostatic pressure , and gravity -bladder expansion compresses urethral opening -3 layers: mucosa, muscular, and adventitia |
| Structure and function of Bladder | -storage sac -retroperitoneal -trigone -4 layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and adventitia |
| Structure and function of the Urethra (Male vs Female) | -discharges urine from the body -females urethra is 5x longer than males -males are divided into 3 segments -a common duct for the urinary and reproductive systems in males |
| Micturition reflex | -stretch receptors signal/spinal cord and brain -micturition center in sacral spinal cord (S2/S3) and reflex triggered -efferent parasympathetic response |
| Structures that transport fluids through the urinary system | -filtrate/capsular space -tubular fluid/PCT, descending limb of nephron loop, ascending limb of nephron loop, DCT, collecting tubule/duct -urine/papillary duct, minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra |
| Polyuria | -excess urination |
| Oliguria | -below normal urination |
| Percentage of body fluid | -Human Body = 45% - 75% fluid -depends on age and amount of adipose tissue /skeletal muscle tissue -decreases with increased body fat |
| Fluid compartments | -Intracellular fluid - 2/3 of total body fluid -extracellular fluid- 1/3 of total body fluid, interstitial fluid - 2/3 of ECF and plasma-1/3 of ECF |
| Movement of water between body fluid compartments | -continuous in response to changes in osmolarity -concentration in compartment, hypotonic or hypertonic -drinking water |
| Body water gain & loss | -to remain properly hydrated; fluid intake = fluid output -fluid intake sources of preformed H2O and metabolic H2O -fluid output- sensible vs. insensible and facultative vs. obligatory -inc in plasma osmolality which triggers thirst and release of ADH |
| Sources of body water gain and loss | -fluid intake sources of preformed H2O and metabolic H2O |
| Fluid imbalance | -volume depletion -volume excess -dehydration -hypotonic hydration-water intoxication -fluid sequestration- body fluid distributed abnormally, edema |
| Regulation of fluid balance | -regulating fluid balance in monitoring blood volume, bp, and blood plasma osmolarity -fluid intake increases blood volume, increase in bp, and a decrease is blood osmolarity -fluid output decreases blood volume, decrease bp, and inc in blood osmolarity |
| Hormonal regulation: | -water balance/ADH and electrolyte balance/Angiotensin II, Aldosterone, and ANP -water follows salt -factor of body fluid volume = extent of urinary salt loss -factor of blood fluid osmolarity = extent of urinary water loss -ANP decreases bp |
| Water balance-ADH | -promotes insertion of water channel proteins into the apical membranes of principal cells in the collecting ducts of the kidneys. Results the water permeability of theses cells to increase and more water is absorbed -reduces loss of water in urine |
| Angiotensin II, Aldosterone, ANP | -electrolyte balance in hormonal regulation -stimulates secretion of aldosterone and reduces loss of water in urine -urinary reabsorption of Na and Cl, inc water absorption via osmosis -promotes natriuresis, elevated urinary excretion of Na and Cl |
| Electrolytes in Body Fluids | -control osmosis between body fluid compartments -help maintain the acid-base balance -carry electrical current -serve as cofactors for enzymes |
| Compartmental Electrolytes | -cations/K+ is 75% in intracellular fluid-most abundant Na+ is most abundant in extracellular fluid -proteins and anions/Proteins 27% in intracellular fluid-most abundant phosphate is 20% in ICF Cl- is the most abundant in extracellular fluid |
| Acid-Base Balance | -normal blood pH = 7.35 to 7.45 -mechanisms that maintain this range: buffer systems, exhalation of CO2, and kidney excretion of H+ |
| Buffer systems in the body | -protein buffers/most abundant buffers in body cells/blood -phosphate buffers/important buffers in ICF/urine -bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffer/regulator of blood pH/most abundant buffers in ECF -lungs<-->CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 = H + HCO3 <-->kidneys |
| Respiratory regulation of acid-base balance | -The respiratory system can reduce blood pH by removing CO2 from the blood -increased exhalation of CO2 --> pH rises/hypercapnia -decreased exhalation of CO2 --> pH falls/hypocapnia |
| Renal regulation of acid-base balance | -reabsorbs all filtered HCO3 along the nephron -excretes H+ into the filtrate -slowest mechanism -renal tubules secrete hydrogen into urine and reabsorb HCO3 -PCT and collecting ducts secrete H+ into the tubular fluid |
| Acid-Base Imbalances | -acidosis - blood pH below 7.35 -alkalosis - blood pH above 7.45 |
| Respiratory acidosis | -high PCO2 -inadequate exhalation of CO2 -any condition that decreases the movement of CO2 out like emphysema -kidneys can help raise blood pH -goal is to increase exhalation of CO2 - ventilation therapy |
| Respiratory alkalosis | -low PCO2 -cause is hyperventilation due to O2 deficiency from high altitude or pulmonary disease, stroke, or severe anxiety -renal compensation can help -treatment - to breathe into a paper bag for a short time |
| Metabolic acidosis | -low HCO3 -loss of HCO3 from severe diarrhea or renal dysfunction -increased production of metabolic acids -failure of kidneys to excrete Hydrogen -Treatment - hyperventilation can help, IV sodium bicarb and correct cause of acidosis |
| Metabolic alkalosis | -high HCO3 -nonrespiratory loss of acid - vomit of acidic stomach/gastric suctioning -excessive intake of alkaline drugs and certain diuretics -severe dehydration -Tx - hypoventilation, fluid solutions to correct Cl, K, electrolytes, and alkalosis |
| Meiosis | -sexual reproduction -reduce chromosome number so daughter cells receive one of every pair (23) -2 stages of Meiosis I and Meiosis II -diploid- 2N homologous chromosomes -haploid- N |
| Structure & Function Scrotum | -support structure for testes -sac of loose skin, fascia, smooth muscle in 2 pouches by septum -intrascrotal temp regulat externally position, keeps testis - 3 degrees Celsius lower than the core body temp -regulated by cremaster and dartos muscle |
| Structure & Function Testes | -paired oval glands in the scrotum -develop near kidney and descend through inguinal canals - 7th month of fetal development -surrounded by 2 tunics/ tunica vaginalis and tunica albuginea |
| Spermatogenesis | -begins at puberty -takes about 2.5 months -stimulated by FSH and LH -Spermatogonia (2n)-->primary spermatocyte (2n)-->secondary spermatocyte (n)-->spermatids (n)-->spermatozoa/sperm (n) |
| Spermatogenic cells | -immature germ cells that undergo spermatogenesis |
| Support cells | -Sustentacular/Sertoli cells -Interstitial/Leydig cells |
| Hormonal control of Spermatogenesis | -GnRH-->FSH/LH -LH-->testosterone -FSH-->Androgen-binding protein -inhibin-->further inhibits FSH secretion |
| Structure & Function System of ducts | -Epididymis/tightly coiled tube located at the back of each testicle-primary function to store and mature sperm -Ductus (vas) Deferens/paired tube and transports sperm from the epididymis to the urethra, plays a role in moving sperm during ejaculation |
| Pathway of sperm flow | -Seminiferous tubules --> Straight tubules --> Rete Testis --> Efferent ducts --> Ductus Epididymis --> Ductus (vas) deferens |
| Structure & Function Spermatic cord | -testicular artery -pampiniform plexus of veins -autonomic nerves -lymphatic vessels -ductus (vas) deferens -cremaster muscle |
| Accessary glands: Seminal vesicles | -Seminal vesicles-viscous, whitish-yellow, alkaline fluid -Prostate-slightly milky fluid that is weakly acidic -Bulbourethral or Cowper's gland-clear, viscous mucin |
| Structure & Function Penis | -passageway for semen and urine (urethra) -bulb, crus, body, glans penis, prepuce -body composed of erectile tissue masses filled w/blood sinuses |
| Structure & Function Semen | -sperm and seminal fluid -coagulates and reliquefies on ejaculation -average ejaculation contains 50-150 million sperms -functions for motility, count, and shape of sperm |
| Structure & Function Ovaries | -female gonads -held in place by 3 ligaments -germinal epithelium -tunica albuginea -ovarian cortex -ovarian medulla |
| Structure & Function Follicles | -Primary Oocyte-primordial follicle, primary follicle, and secondary follicle -Secondary Oocyte-vesicular follicle (teritary) -No Oocyte-corpus luteum, corpus albicans -follicle = oocyte + supporting cells |
| Oogenesis | -development of oocytes -before birth/embryonic and fetal period-primary oocytes start in meiosis -childhood/ovary is inactive -monthly, from puberty to menopause |
| Structure & Function Uterine Tubes (Fallopian Tubes) | -extend laterally from both sides of the uterus towards the ovaries -function is to transport the ovulated oocyte to the uterus and is the site of fertilization of an oocyte |
| Structure & Function Uterus | -site of implantation of a fertilized egg, nurturing and developing fetus during pregnancy -3 layers -perimetrium (serosa) -myometrium- 3 layers of smooth muscle -endometrium- stratum functionalis and stratum basalis |
| Structure & Function Vagina | -passageway for birth, menstrual flow, and intercourse -wall consists of 3 layers: mucosa, muscularis (smooth muscle layer), and adventitia |
| Homologous structures of the female and male reproductive systems | Gonads: testes and ovaries External genitalia: scrotum and labia majora Ligaments: Gubernaculum and ligamentum trees uterus embryonic ducts: Ductus Deferens and Gartner's Duct Urethra: Prostate and Paraurethral glands |
| Structure & Function Mammary glands | -modified sweat glands that produce milk (lactation) -lobes (15-20) --> lobules --> alveoli -lactiferous ducts -areola -suspensory ligaments |
| Hormonal control-female reproductive system | -Hypothalamus-->GnRH-->pituitary gland to release FSH and LH -Pituitary gland-->FSH and LH-->ovaries-->estrogen and progesterone -ovaries-->estrogen and progesterone-->follicle growth-->potential pregnancy |
| Ovarian cycle | -3 phases -24-35 days duration -stage 1-follicular phase -stage 2-ovulation -stage 3-luteal phase |
| Uterine cycle | -3 phases -stage 1-menstrual -stage 2-Proliferative -stage 3-Secretory -progesterone and estrogens produced by corpus luteum promote growth of endometrium -corpus luteum-->menstruation |
| Aging & reproductive systems | -females/Perimenopause-near menopause and irregular or skipped periods and menopause-between 45-55 years, decrease in vaginal thickness -males/decrease in testosterone levels in the 50s, prostate enlargement, and erectile dysfunction |
| Structure & Function ductus deferens | -muscular tube in the male reproductive system -function is to transport sperm from the epididymis to the urethra |
| Structure & Function ejaculatory ducts | -short, approx 2 cm long -function is to transport sperm and seminal fluid into the prostatic urethra |
| Structure & Function of the urethra | -muscular tube -function is to carry urine from the bladder to the outside of the body |
| Structure & Function of the prostate | -walnut sized gland, located below the bladder and in front of the rectum -function is to produce fluid that, along with sperm and other fluids, forms semen |
| Structure & Function of the bulbourethral glands | -small, paired glands located on either side of the urethra, near the prostate -responsible for secreting a mucus-like fluid that lubricates the urethra and neutralizes any acidic urine that may remain |
| Aldosterone in tubular reabsorption | -increase in NaCl, H2O reabsorption, increase in K+ secretion and H+ secretion -increase in bp |
| Angiotensin II in tubular reabsorption | -increase in NaCl and H2O reabsorption, increase in H+ secretions -increase bp |
| Antidurietic hormone in tubular reabsorption | -increase in H2O reabsorption -increase in bp |
| Atrial natriuretic peptide in tubular reabsorption | -decrease in NaCl reabsorption -decrease in H2O and bp |
| Parathyroid hormone in tubular reabsorption | -decrease on PO4 reabsorption and increase in Ca+ reabsorption |
| Evaluation of kidney function: abnormal constituents of urine | -albuminuria/excessive albumin in urine -glucosuria/presence of glucose -hematuria/blood cells in urine -pyuripa/wbc in urine -ketonuria/high levels of ketone -bilirubinuria/above normal level of bilirubin -urobilinogenuria -casts/tiny masses |
| sensible vs. insensible | -fluid loss that can be measured, like urine, vomit, or feces vs. fluid loss that can't be measured, such as through sweat and breathing |
| facultative vs. obligatory | -occurs in the DCT and collecting ducts and is regulated by ADH vs. passive movement of water alongside the reabsorption of solutes like Na and glucose |
| volume depletion and volume excess | -fluid imbalance w/constant osmolarity -losing isotonic fluid |
| Dehydration and hypotonic hydration | -fluid imbalance w/changes in osmolarity and water is lost or gained |
| Hypotonic hydration (water intoxication) | -excessive blood loss, sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea coupled w/intake of plain water -decrease Na+ concentration of interstitial fluid and plasma -decreased osmolarity -osmosis of water -cells swell -convulsions, coma, and possible death |
| Renin-Angiotensin system | -stimulus/low bp -receptor/jG apparatus responds to stimuli -control center/JG apparatus releases renion into blood -renin activates enzyme ->angiotensin I to II -effectors/systemic bv, kidneys, hypothalamus, adrenal cortex -net effect-increase bp |
| Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone (RAA) Pathway | Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone system that plays a crucial role in regulating blood pressure and fluid balance |
| Cryptorchidism | -also known as undescended testicles -a condition where one or both testicles fail to descend into the scrotum during fetal development |
| Corpus Luteum | -temporary endocrine gland that forms in the ovary after ovulation -function to produce progesterone |
| Endometriosis | -growth of endometrial tissue outside of uterus |
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