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A&P 2-Exam 3
Chapters 23 & 26
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the major divisions (structural & functional) of the respiratory system | -the upper respiratory tract-nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx -lower respiratory tract-trachea, Bronchos, bronchiole, terminal bronchiole, and the lungs -conducting zone-nose to the lungs -respiratory zone-resp bronchiole, alveolar duct, alveoli |
| Epithelia of the respiratory tract (The structure of the respiratory epithelium at different sites within the respiratory tract) | -pseudociliated col-lines nasal cavity,sinuses, nasopharynx, trachea main/lobar bronchi -simple cuboidal col-seg bronchi/lg bronchioles -simple ciliated cuboidal-sm internal response bronchioles -simple squamous-alveolar ducts and forms alveoli |
| Structure & Function of the internal nasal cavity | -detection of odors-olfactory epithelium -respiration-airway -cilia moves mucous towards pharynx -resonate sound -pseudostratified ciliated columnar w/goblet cells lines nasal cavity -warms, moistens, filters air (conditioning) |
| Structure and function of the Pharynx – 3 parts | -nasopharynx-adenoids (pharyngeal tonsil), pharyngotympanic auditory tube -oropharynx-fauces, palatine, and lingual tonsils -laryngopharynx -function is the passageway for air and food except nasopharynx and ability to stretch |
| Structure and function of the Larynx | -is the passageway for air, prevents food from entering, voice production -attaches to hyoid bone, opens into laryngopharynx superiority -9 pieces of cartilage -3 unpaired-thyroid, epiglottis, cricoid -3 paired-arytenoid, cuneiform, corniculate |
| What are the Vocal structures of the larynx | -fase vocal cords (ventricular/vestibular folds)-no sound, only for protection, the one on top -true vocal cords-makes the sound, bottom one -opening and closing of vocal folds occurs during breathing/ speech -rima glottidis-opening between the 2 folds |
| Structure and function of the Trachea | -composed of 4 layers -mucosa-pseudostratified columnar w/cilia and goblet -submucosa-CT and seromucous glands that secrete serous and mucus -C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage -adventitia-elastic CT -trachealis muscle-elastic ligamentous membrane |
| What are the structure and function of the Bronchial tree- different types of bronchi and bronchioles | -main bronchi (1 bronchi)-supply each lobe -lobar bronchi (2 bronchi)-supply each lobe -segmental bronchi (3 bronchi)-supply each bronchopulmonary segment |
| Changes along the bronchial tree What are the Relative amounts of cartilage vs. smooth muscle | -decrease cartilage size until fully disappears in wall of bronchioles -increased num of smooth muscle cells -increased num of elastic fibers -decrease of epithelial cell height -goblet cells disappear in term bronchioles -ciliated cells disappear |
| Structure and function of the Lungs | -Hilus/Hilum (root) -Apex-air filtering -Base-separates chest cav from abdominal -Cardiac notch-indentation to fit in thoracic -Lobes-R=3 lobes and L=2 lobes -Brachopulmonary segments-functional units of lungs -Lobules-smallest visible subdivision |
| Blood supply to the lungs | -pulmonary circulation-conducts blood to and from gas exchange surfaces/alveoli-deoxygenated -bronchial circulation-component of systemic circulation-oxygenated |
| Structure and function of the Respiratory zone | -terminal bronchioles-->respiratory bronchiole-->alveolar duct-->alveolar sacs composed of alveoli -participates in gas exchange with the blood |
| What are the parts of the respiratory zone | -branch of pulmonary artery -branch of pulmonary vein -respiratory bronchioles -alveolar duct -alveoli -elastic fibers |
| what is an alveoli | -tiny microscopic air sacs -have no cartilage, no smooth muscle -simple squamous epithelium -gas exchange |
| What are the cell types in alveoli and their functions | -Alveolar type I cell-gas exchange -Alveolar type II cell-secrete surfactant -Alveolar macrophages-immune dust cells |
| What is the respiratory membrane | -has 4 layers -Alveolar epithelium of type I, alveolar epithelial of basement mem, capillary basement mem, and endothelial cells of capillary -separates the blood from the air within the alveoli of the lungs |
| Explain pulmonary ventilation (pressure/volume changes) | -breathing -movement if air between atmosphere and the alveoli -net movement of O2 from atmosphere to alveoli during inspiration -net movement of CO2 from alveoli to atmosphere during expiration |
| What is Boyle’s Law | -P1V1=P2V2 -Pressure of gas in a closed container is inversely proportional to the volume of the container |
| What is the mechanism of breathing | -specific actions of skeletal muscles of breathing -dimensional volume changes within the thoracic cavity -pressure changes resulting from volume changes -pressure gradients -volumes and pressures associated with breathing |
| Explain the changes in the thoracic cavity during inspiration/expiration | -primarily due to contraction and relaxation of diaphragm -inspiration-diaphragm contracts, ribs are elevated and thoracic cavity widens, and sternum moves anteriorly -expiration-diaphragm relaxes, thoracic cavity narrow, and sternum moves posteriorly |
| What are the Volume-Pressure changes in lungs during breathing | -Intrapulmonary pressure-pressure w/ the alveoli -intrapleural pressure-pressure w/in pleural cavity -inspiration, pleural cav inc and intrapleural dec-same for intrapulmonary -expiration, pleural cav dec and intrapleural inc-same for intrapulmonary |
| What is the Pneumothorax | -pleural cavities normally sealed-not open to outside -injuries to chest wall may let air enter intrapleural space -it will fix itself |
| What are the muscles used in breathing | -Diaphragm -intercostal muscles |
| What are the muscles used in quiet breathing | -diaphragm -external intercostal muscles -increase dimensions of thoracic cavity |
| What are the factors affecting pulmonary ventilation/ airflow | -primarily due to contraction and relaxation of diaphragm -external intercostal muscle is relaxing |
| Explain External and internal respiration (Alveolar and Systemic gas exchange) | -Alveolar gas exchange-gases between alveoli + blood, O2 diffuses from alveoli in blood, CO2 diffuses blood to alveoli -Systemic gas exchange-gases betwen blood + systemic cells, O2 diffuses from blood in sys cells, CO2 diffueses sys cells in blood |
| Tidal wave | 500 ml-amt of air inhaled or exhaled w/each breath at resting |
| Explain Pulmonary and Alveolar ventilation | -Pulmonary ventilation-movement of air in and out of the lungs to exchange O2 and CO2 -Alveolar ventilation-process by which O2 enters bloodstream and CO2 is removed from it at the level of the alveoli in the lungs |
| How do you Calculate respiratory rate | -total number if breaths/respiratory cycles that occur each minute Minute Ventilation (MV) = Tidal Vol x Respiratory rate Alveolar Ventilation (AV) = (Tidal Vol - Anatomic dead space) x Respiration rate |
| Factors that affect the rate of pulmonary and systemic gas exchange | -partial pressure difference in gases (ex: high altitudes) -surface area available for gas exchange (30 mil alveoli) -diffusion distance / thickness (4 layers of resp membrane) -Molecular weight/solubility of gases (Higher MW->higher solubility) |
| Explain the transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood | -O2 transport-1.5% dissolved in plasma and 98.5% bound to hemoglobin in RBC -CO2 is carried by blood in 3 ways dissolved in plasma 7% combined w/hemoglobin-->carbaminohemoglobin 23% part of bicarbonate 70% |
| Explain Chemical reactions during gas exchange (no need to memorize the partial pressures) | -Oxygen and CO2 move across membranes by diffusion, driven by concentration gradients, with O2 moving from the lungs to the blood and CO2 moving from the blood to the lungs |
| What is Gas exchange in lungs and tissues during (external & internal respiration) | -involves O2 loading and CO2 unloading in lungs (external respiration) and the reverse process in tissues (internal respiration), facilitated by diffusion based on partial pressure gradients |
| What is Hemoglobin (Hb) as a transport molecule | -is an iron containing protein within RBC that acts as a primary transport molecule for O2, carrying it from lungs to the body's tissues |
| What is Hemoglobin & Oxygen release | -dissociate O2 from hemoglobin |
| What are the Factors: PcO2, pH, temperature, BPG, etc. | -additional O2 is released from hemoglobin with an increase in temperature, H+, BPG, and CO2 binding -these factors ensure O2 unloading in the vicinity of working tissue cells |
| Explain Breathing rate – terminology | -referred to as respiratoy rate |
| Explain Hyperventilation | -rapid and deep breathing, usually caused by anxiety or panic -irregular breathing that occurs when the rate of TV of breathing eliminates more CO2 than the body can produce |
| Explain Hypoventilation | -inadequte to perform needed respiratory gas exchang, increase of CO2 and respiratory acidosis |
| Eupnea | -normal breathing rate and pattern |
| What are the organs of the Digestive System | -Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, pancreas -oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus |
| What are the Alimentary Canal/ Gastrointestinal tract organs | -a continuous tube that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus, encompassing the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, and rectum |
| What are the Accessory structures/ organs | -Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, pancreas |
| What are the 6 functions of the digestive process | -ingestion -Motility-propulsion (moving forward) and peristalsis (contraction circular/longitudinal) -secretion -digestion-mechanical and chemical -absorption -elimination-defecation |
| What are the Layers of GI tract: | -mucosa-epithelium, lamina propria, muscularis mucosa -submucosa-submucosal nerve plexus -muscularis-inner circular layer, myenteric nerve plexus, outer longitudinal layer -serosa(inside)/adventitia(outside) |
| Mucosa | -digested substances are transported from the lumen of the GI tract through the epithelium |
| Submucosa | -thin layer of tissue in various organs of the GI, respiratory, and genitourinary tracts |
| Muscularis | -motility includes both mixing, type of muscular contraction of the muscular that facilitates blending of materials w/in the GI tract |
| Serosa/Adventitia | -2 distinct layers found in walls of various organs particularly in the GI tract. |
| Explain Neural Innervation | -process by which nerves supply and stimulate a body part, regulating its function, and can occur at synapses, neuroeffector junctions, or neuromuscular junctions. -enteric nervous system -autonomic nervous system -GI reflex pathways |
| What is the Enteric nervous system | -also called the second brain -myenteric plexus-GI tract -submucosal plexus-controlling secretions -functions digestive processes, sensory input, and communication with the brain |
| What is the Autonomic nervous system | -vagus nerve-parasympathetic, increase in GI secretions/activity -spinal cord-sympathetic, decrease in GI secretions |
| What is Peritoneum and the 5 major peritoneal folds | -membrane that lines the inside of your abdomen and pelvis (parietal layer) -functions is to weave between viscera binding organs together -Greater omentum -lesser omentum -falciform ligament -mesentery -mesocolon-transverse and sigmoid |
| Explain the difference in Intraperitoneal vs Retroperitoneal | -intraperitoneal organs-inside the cavity -retroperitoneal organs-outside the cavity |
| Structure and function of the Oral cavity | -mouth, housing teeth, tongue, lips, palate, and salivary glands -crucial part of the digestive and respiratory systems -mechanical and chemical digestion |
| Structure and function of the Salivary glands | -includes the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual -moistens ingested food, dissolves molecules for taste receptors, clenses oral cavity structure, inhibits bacterial growth, and begins chemical breakdown of starch |
| Structure and function of Teeth | -incisors-front of mouth, sharp edges for cutting and biting -canines-next to incisors, w/pointed tips for tearing -premolars-behind canines, w/flat surface-ridges for crushing/grinding -molars-back of mouth, w/lg-flat surfaces, for crushing/grinding |
| Explain Chemical and mechanical digestion in the mouth | -chemical-start w/salivary amylase, starch (amylose) only active when in stomach and inactivated by stomach acid (HCL) and stops at lingual lipase-activated in acidic environment -mechanical-mastication (chewing) and bolus |
| Structure and function of the Pharynx | -throat, a muscular tube connecting the nose and mouth to the larynx and esophagus, serving as the passageway for both air and food -nasopharynx -oropharynx -larynhhopharynx related to respiration and swallowing |
| Structure and function of the Esophagus | -muscular tube that transport food and liquids from the pharynx to the stomach, facilitated by perstalsis and sphincters that prevent food from entering the wrong passages |
| Explain Deglutition | 1-vountary phase-bolus of food pushed by tongue -> hard palate to oropharynx 2-pharyngeal (involuntary)-oropharynx, soft palate, uvula close off nasopharynx, larynx elevates, epiglottis closes 3-esophageal (involuntary)-perstalis contractions->stomach |
| Structure and function of the Stomach | muscular organ in the upper abdomen -holds ingested food -degrades food chemically and physically -delivers chyme to sm intestine -enzymatically digests proteins w/pepsin -secretes intrinsic factor required for absorption of vitamin b12 |
| What are the glands, cell types & their secretions in the stomach | gastric glands, cardiac glands, and pyloric glands -surface mucous cells-secretes alkaline mucin -mucous neck cells- less alkaline mucin -parietal cells-intrinsic factor and HCL -chief cells-pepsinogen and gastric lipase -G cells-gastrin into blood |
| Chemical and mechanical digestion in the stomach | -chemical-salivary amylase, stomach acids activate, parietal cells secrete Hydrogen and Chlorine separately, pepsin is secreted by chief cells -mechanical-peristaltic movements, muscular contractions |
| Structure and function of the Small intestine | -20 foot long tube, crucial for digestion, nutrient absorption, divided into the duodenum, jejunum, ileum -4 layers, mucosa, submucosa, muscular, serosa -receives partially digested food from stomach and further breaks it down and absorbs in bloodstream |
| What are the Glands, cell types & their secretions of the small intestine | intestinal glands -absorptive cells -goblet cells-mucus secreting -enteroendocrine cells-hormone secreting -paneth-antimicrobial -tuft cells-sensory |
| Chemical and mechanical digestion in the small intestine | -chemical-enzymatic breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids -mechanical-segmentation, governed by myenteric plexus, localized-mixing contractions, mix chyme-bring it in contact w/mucosa for absorption |
| Structure and function of the Large intestine | -comprises the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal -absorbs water and electrolytes, forms and stores feces, and eliminates waste products |
| Chemical and mechanical digestion in the large intestine | -chemical-no enzymes secreted and bacteria-ferment Carbohydrates and produce vit k and b -mechanical-peristalic waves (3-12 contractions per minute), haustral churning, bastroilial reflex, and gastrocolic reflex |
| Explain Defecation | -discharge of feces from the body |
| Explain the digestion of Carbohydrate, Proteins, Lipids, and Nucleic acids | -carbs-salivary amylase->pancreatic amylase->brush border enzymes -proteins-stomach (HCL/pepsin)->pancreas->brush border enzymes -lipds-mouth->stomach->liver/gall bladder->pancreas -nucleic acids-pancreas->brush border (phosphate/nucleosides) |
| Explain absorption of nutrients, electrolytes, vitamins, and water | -carbs and protein->blood->hepatic portal vein, lipds->lacteal->lymph->blood -electrolytes-from GI secretions or food and Na+ reclaimed by active transport -vitamins-fat soluble->simple dif->transport w/lipids, H2O soluble->simple dif -water-osmosis |
| Structure and function of the Liver | -vital organ located in the upper right abdomen -functions include filtering blood, producing bile for digestion, and detoxifying harmful substances -has 2 main lobes |
| How does the hepatic portal system work? | -circulatory pathway that directs blood from the digestive organs to the liver for processing before it returns to the heart, rather than directly into general circulation |
| Structure and function of the Pancreas | -dual function organ in the abdomen, acting as both a digestive gland (exocrine) and an endocrine gland, producing enzymes for digestion and hormones like insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar |
| Structure and function of the Gallbladder | -located under the liver and is pear shaped -stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver, releasing it into the small intestine to aid in fat digestion |
| Explain Hormonal control of digestion: Gastrin, Secretin, CCK | -gastrin-secrete by G cells in stomach, stimulus for release-bolus in stomach -secretin-secrete by enteroendocrine cells of sm intestine, inc acidity of chyme in sm intes -CCK-secrete by enteroendocrine cells of sm intes,chyme contain amino/fatty acids |
| Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) | 1900ml/3100 ml-amt of air that can forcefully inhaled after normal tidal volume inspiration |
| Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) | 700ml/1200ml-amt of air that can forcefully exhaled after normal tidal volume expiration |
| Residual volume (RV) | 1100ml/1200ml-amt of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration |
| Total Lung Capacity (TLC) | 4200ml/6000ml-max amt of air contained in lungs after a max inspiratory TV+IRV+ERV+RV |
| Vital Capacity (VC) | 3100ml/4800ml-max amt of air that can be expired after max inspiratory effort TV+IRV+ERV |
| Inspiratory Capacity (IC) | 2400ml/3600ml-max amt of air that can be inspired after normal Tidal Volume expiration TV+IRV |
| Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) | 1800ml/2400ml-vol of air remaining in the lungs after a normal Tidal Volume expiration ERV+RV |
| Hypocapnia | -state of reduced CO2 in the blood |
| Respiratory alkalosis | -medical condition in which increased respiration elevates the blood pH beyond normal range w/concurrent reduction in arterial levels of CO2 |
| Bradypnea | -decreased respiratory rate -causes from sleep, drugs, metabolic disorder, head injury, and stroke |
| Hypopnea | -overly shallow breathing or an abnormally low respiratory rate |
| Hypoxia | -an absence of enough O2 in the tissues to sustain bodily functions |
| Hypercapnia | -CO2 retention, a condition of abnormally elevated CO2 levels in the blood |
| Respiratory acidosis | -state in which decreased ventilation increases the concentration of CO2 in the blood and decreases the blood's pH |
| tachypnea | increased respiratory rate -caused by fever, anxiety, exercise, and shock |
| Apnea | -absence of breathing -caused by deceased patient, head injury, stroke |
| Hyperpnea | -normal rate, but deep respirations -caused by emotional stress, diabetic keto acidosis |
| Serosa | -thin layer of epithelial cells that secretes serous fluid, providing lubrication and protection |
| adventitia | -layer of dense irregular connective tissue containing blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics |
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