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chpt 1
anatomy and physiology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Anatomy (form) | Study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another |
| Physiology (function) | Study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities |
| Form is always related to function! | Anatomy and physiology are inseparable Function always reflects structure What a structure can do depends on its specific form FORM AND FUNCTION ARE ALWAYS ALWAYS ALWAYS related!! |
| Topics of Anatomy Gross or macroscopic anatomy is the study of large, visible structures | Regional anatomy looks at all structures in a particular area of the body Systemic anatomy looks at just one system (cardiovascular, nervous, muscular, etc.) |
| Topics of Anatomy | Surface anatomy looks at internal structures as they relate to overlying skin (visible muscle masses or veins seen on surface) |
| Topics of Anatomy | Microscopic anatomy deals with structures too small to be seen by naked eye Cytology: microscopic study of cells Histology: microscopic study of tissues |
| Topics of Anatomy | Developmental anatomy studies anatomical and physiological development throughout life Embryology study of development before birth To study anatomy, one must know anatomical terminology and be able to observe, manipulate, palpate, and auscultate |
| Topics of Physiology Based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology) | Often focuses on cellular and molecular levels of the body Looks at how the body’s abilities are dependent on chemical reactions in individual cells |
| Topics of Physiology | To study physiology, one must understand basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement) as well as basic chemical principles |
| Chemical level: atoms, molecules, and organelles Cellular level: single cell Tissue level: groups of similar cells | Organ level: contains two or more types of tissues Organ system level: organs that work closely together Organismal level: all organ systems combined to make the whole organism |
| integumentary system - hair, skin, nails | forms external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc) receptors and sweat and oil glands |
| skeletal system -joint, bones | protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. bones store minerals |
| muscular system -skeletal muscles | allows manipulation of environment, locomotion, and facial expressions. maintain posture and produce heat |
| nervous system - brain, nerves, and spinal cord | as fast-acting control system of body, responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands |
| endocrine system - thyroid gland, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovary, testis, pituitary gland, pineal gland | glands secrete hormones that regulate processes like growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells. |
| cardiovascular system -blood vessels, heart | blood vessles transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste, etc. heart pumps blood. |
| lymphatic system/immunity -red bone marrow, thymus, lympathic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes | picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. disposes of debris in lymphatic system. houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body. |
| respiratory system - nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus, lung | keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. the gaseous exchanges occur through walls of air sacs in the lungs |
| digestive system - oral cavity, esophagus, liver, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus | breaks down food into absorable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces |
| urinary system - kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra | eliminates nitrogeneous wastes from the body. regulates water, electrolytes, and acid- based balance of the blood. |
| male reproductive system - prostate, penis, testis, scrotum, ductus deferens | overall function is production of offspring. testes produce sperm and male sex hormones and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to female reproductive tract, |
| female reproductive system - mammary, ovary, uterus, vagina, uterine tube | remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of fetus. mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish newborn |
| necessary life functions | Maintaining boundaries Movement Responsiveness Digestion Metabolism Excretion Reproduction Growth |
| Maintaining boundaries | Separation between internal and external environments must exist Plasma membranes separate cells Skin separates organism from environment |
| Movement | Muscular system allows movement Of body parts via skeletal muscles Of substances via cardiac muscle (blood) and smooth muscle (digestion, urination) Contractility refers to movement at the cellular level |
| Responsiveness | Ability to sense and respond to stimuli Withdrawal reflex prevents injury Control of breathing rate, which must change in response to different activities |
| Digestion | Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs, followed by absorption of simple molecules into blood |
| Metabolism | All chemical reactions that occur in body cells Sum of all catabolism (breakdown of molecules) and anabolism (synthesis of molecules) |
| Excretion | Removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion Urea (from breakdown of proteins), carbon dioxide (from metabolism), feces (unabsorbed foods) |
| Reproduction | At the cellular level, reproduction involves division of cells for growth or repair (Your body has to do this to stay alive!) At the organismal level, reproduction is the production of offspring (You don’t have to do this to stay alive!) |
| Growth | Increase in size of a body part or of organism Even just a single cell! |
| Humans are multicellular, so to function, individual cells must be kept alive Organ systems are designed to service the cells | All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs There are 11 organ systems that work together to maintain life Your organ systems all interact! |
| Survival Needs Things your body must have/get to live. | Humans need several factors for survival that must be in the appropriate amounts; too much or too little can be harmful: Nutrients Oxygen Water Normal body temperature Appropriate atmospheric pressure |
| Nutrients Chemicals for energy and cell building | Carbohydrates: major source of energy Proteins: needed for cell building and cell chemistry Fats: long-term energy storage Minerals and vitamins: involved in chemical reactions as well as for structural purposes |
| Oxygen | Essential for release of energy from foods The body can survive only a few minutes without oxygen |
| Water | Most abundant chemical in body; provides the watery environment needed for chemical reactions Also is fluid base for secretions and excretions |
| Normal body temperature | If body temp falls below or goes above 37°C, rates of chemical reactions are affected |
| Appropriate atmospheric pressure | Specific pressure of air is needed for adequate breathing and gas exchange in lungs |
| Homeostasis | Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment A dynamic state of equilibrium, always readjusting as needed Maintained by contributions of all organ systems |
| Homeostatic Controls | Body must constantly be monitored and regulated to maintain homeostasis Nervous and endocrine systems, as well as other systems, play a major role in maintaining homeostasis |
| Homeostatic Controls | Variables are factors that can change (blood sugar, body temperature, blood volume, etc.) Homeostatic control of variables involves three components: receptor, control center, and effector |
| Receptor (sensor) | Monitors environment Responds to stimuli (things that cause changes in controlled variables) |
| Control center | Determines set point at which variable is maintained Receives input from receptor Determines appropriate response |
| Effector | Receives output from control center Provides the means to respond Response either reduces stimulus (negative feedback) or enhances stimulus (positive feedback) |
| Negative feedback Most-used feedback mechanism in body Response reduces or shuts off original stimulus Variable changes in opposite direction of initial change | Examples Regulation of body temperature (a nervous system mechanism) Regulation of blood glucose by insulin (an endocrine system mechanism) |
| Example of negative feedback: | Receptors sense increased blood glucose (blood sugar) Pancreas (control center) secretes insulin into the blood Insulin causes body cells (effectors) to absorb more glucose, which decreases blood glucose levels |
| Positive feedback | Response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus Usually controls infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustment, for example: Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin (Chapter 28) Platelet plug formation and blood clotting |
| Disturbance of homeostasis Increases risk of disease | Contributes to changes associated with aging Control systems become less efficient Can be caused by malnutrition If negative feedback mechanisms become overwhelmed, destructive positive feedback mechanisms may take over Heart failure |
| Afferent pathway (Approaches) From the receptor to the control center | Efferent pathway (Exits) From the control center to the effector |
| Standard anatomical position | Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward with thumbs pointing away from body |
| Directional terms describe one body structure in relation to another body structure | Direction is always based on standard anatomical position Right and left refer to the body being viewed, not right and left of observer |
| Regional Terms | Two major divisions of body Axial Head, neck, and trunk Appendicular Limbs (legs and arms) Regional terms designate specific areas within body divisions |
| Body planes Surfaces along which body or structures may be cut for anatomical study | Three most common planes: Sagittal plane Frontal (coronal) plane Transverse (horizontal) plane |
| Sections | Cuts or sections made along a body plane Named after plane, so a sagittal cut results in a sagittal section |
| Sagittal plane | Divides body vertically into right and left parts Produces a sagittal section if cut along this plane |
| Midsagittal (median) plane Cut was made perfectly on midline | Parasagittal plane Cut was off-centered, not on midline |
| Frontal (coronal) plane | Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior parts (front and back) Produces a frontal or coronal section |
Created by:
lunagmia
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