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A&P 2- Exam 1
Chapters 17-19
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Describe the general features of the endocrine system, including how hormones are transported between an endocrine gland and its target cell. | a network of ductless glands throughout the bidy that produce and secrete hormones, chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream to reach specific target cells and trigger physiological responses. -Body's chemical communication system |
| Compare and contrast the actions of the endocrine system and the nervous system to control body function. | the nervous system controls body functions through rapid, short lived electrical signals transmitted by neurons the endocrine system regulates body functions through slower, long-lasting chemical signals called hormones released in bloodstream by glands |
| Describe the general functions controlled by the endocrine system | -maintaining homeostasis of blood composition and volume -regulating growth, development, and metabolism -controlling reproductive activities -controlling digestive processes |
| List the major endocrine glands and their location within the body | -pineal gland -pituitary gland -thyroid gland -parathyroid gland -adrenal gland |
| Name the 3 structural categories of circulating hormones, and give examples within each category | -steroids-estrogen, progesterone,testosterone, cortisol, aldosterone -amines-norepi, epi, throid hormones, melatonin -proteins-antidiuretic hormone, insulin, glucagon, GH, erthroprotein (EPO) |
| Describe the general structure, formation, and function of local hormones | -Eicosanoids prostaglandins-stimulates the hypothalamus to inc body temp, inhibit stomach and secretion, acting on mast cells to release molecules and inc inflammation, stimulating pain receptors thromboxanes, and leukotrienes function is inflammation |
| Compare autocrine and paracrine signaling that occurs through local hormones | -autocrine-signaling itself to allow for self regulation and feedback mechanisms within a single cell -paracrine-signbaling molecule diffuses to nearby cells and bindsto their receptors, influence behavior of neighbor cells, to communicate between cells |
| Compare the transport of lipid-soluble hormones with that of water-soluble hormones | -water soluble-dissolve in the blood by exocytosis -lipd soluble-cannot dissolve in blood and need carrier proteins that are proteins synthesized by the liver |
| Describe the 2 primary factors that affect the concentration level of a circulating hormone | -hormone release-the amount released by the endocrine gland -hormone elimination- the rate at which the hormone is removed from the bloodstream, primarily by the liver and kidneys |
| Describe how lipid-soluble hormones reach their target cell receptors and the type of cellular change they initiate | -enters cell through plasma mem,binds w/in cytosol to receptor, form HRC -HRC binds w/ DNA sequence to form HRE -Binding of HRC to HRE stimulates mRNA synthesis -mRNA leaves nucleus and translated by ribosome in cytosol to form new protein |
| Describe how water-soluble hormones induce cellular change in their target cells | Signal Transduction Pathway Water hormone (first messenger) must bind with receptor G Protein binds with the receptor G protein activated by GDP and GTPG protein released (second messenger) |
| Describe the conditions that influence the number of receptors available for a specific hormone | influenced by the level of that hormone itself, developmental stage, cell type, and the presence of other hormones that may interact with the signaling pathway |
| Compare and contrast up-regulation and down-regulation | -Up-regulation represents target cells inc their # of receptors for specific hormones, and inc the sensitivity of the cells. -Down-regulation represents a process in which target cells dec their # of receptors and also reduce the sensitivity of cells. |
| Compare and contrast the 3 types of hormone interactions | -Synergistic-hormones work together to produce greater effect -Permissive-first hormone allows action of second hormone -antagonistic-one hormone causes opposite effect of another hormone |
| Explain how the hypothalamus regulates the release of the two hormones from the posterior pituitary gland and describe the general functions of each | Oxytocin and ADH, both stored in the posterior pituitary gland but synthesized by the hypothalamus, released only when hypothalamus sends a nerve signal down the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract |
| List the hormones released from the hypothalamus that control the anterior pituitary | Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH) Prolactin Releasing Hormone (PRH) Gonadotropin Releasing hormone (GnRH) Corticotropin Releasing hormone (CRH) Growth hormone (GH) Inhibiting: Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH) Growth Inhibiting Hormone (GIH) |
| Explain how the hypothalamus controls the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary and the general function of each | sending out releasing hormones to the anterior pituitary which causes the ap to release those hormones: (TRH), (PRH), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), and (GHRH). |
| Explain how the release of growth hormone is regulated | -utilizing "feedback loops." Other hormones, proteins, or brain impulses control hormone secretion -Negative feedback regulate hormone levels within a tightly controlled range, maintaining homeostasis. Positive leads to an elevation in hormone levels. |
| Describe the effects of growth hormone on its primary target organs | Stimulates release of IGFs from liver, Hormone stimulates increased protein synthesis, cell division, cell differentiation, Also stimulates release of nutrients from storage |
| List the 2 specific types of endocrine cells within the thyroid and the specific hormone produced by each | Follicular cells which produce T3(Triiodothyronine and T4 (thyroxine) |
| Explain the homeostatic system involving thyroid hormone | -Stimuli: low TH, cold temp, high altitude, pregnancy /Receptor: hypothalamus /Control center: TRH that travels through hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system to ap/AP secretes TSH/TSH stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4/TH acts on target cells |
| Explain the role of calcitonin in regulating blood calcium | -Functions to lower blood calcium levels by inhibiting the activity of osteoclasts. -promotes calcium secretions through the kidneys |
| Compare and contrast the primary types of pancreatic islet cells and the hormones they produce | -alpha and beta cells are the 2 primary cell types -alpha produce and secrete glucagon -beta cells secrete insulin -delta cells secrete somatostatin -F cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide |
| Describe the action of insulin in lowering blood glucose concentration | Stimulus: Increase in blood glucose Receptor: Beta cells within the pancreas detect the increase Control Center: Beta cells within pancreas release insulin Target Cells: Liver tissue, adipose tissue, muscle cells |
| Explain the action of glucagon in raising blood glucose concentration | Stimulus: Dec in Blood glucose Receptor: Alpha cells in pancreas detect the change Control Center: Alpha cells release glucagon Target Cells: Liver and adipose tissue to release fatty acids and glycerol |
| Identify and provide a description of the general function of the hormones released from each of the organs discussed in this section | thymus-T lymphocytes heart-atrial natriuretic peptide kidneys-erythrocytes liver-angiotensinogen stomach and small intestine-cholecystokinin skin-epithelial cells adipose connective tissue-leptin |
| Describe the general functions of blood | -Transportation of oxygen and nutrients -Regulation of body temp, ph, and fluid balance -Protection of blood loss and immunity |
| List 6 characteristics that describe blood, and explain the significance of each to health and homeostasis | -color-oxygenated or deoxygenated -volume -viscosity-depends on amount of dissolved substances in blood -plasma concentration-concentration of solutes -temp-38 degrees Celsius -blood ph-7.35-7.45 |
| List the 3 components of a centrifuged blood sample | -plasma-water/proteins/other solutes -buffy coat-platelets and leukocytes -erythrocytes |
| Name the 3 formed elements of the blood, and compare their relative abundance | -Erythrocytes-transport O2 and CO2 -Leukocytes-neutraphils,eosinophils,basophils,monocytes, and lymphocytes -platelets-participates in homeostasis |
| Define colloid osmotic pressure, and explain how plasma protein levels affect colloid osmotic pressure | Plasma proteins work together to provide osmotic pressure, preventing fluid loss from the blood as is passes through the capillaries |
| Explain the general process of hematopoiesis, including the name of the hematopoietic stem cell and the substances (CSFs) involved in hematopoiesis | multipotent hematopoietic stem cell-hemocytoblast |
| Describe the process of erythropoiesis | process of erythrocyte production -requires protein, lipids, CHO, iron, Vit B12, folic acid, EPO stem cell-->committed cell -->Developmental pathway (ribosome synthesis-hemoglobin accumulation-ejection of nucleus |
| Compare the production of granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes in leukopoiesis | -granulocytes and monocytes are produced primarily in the bone marrow from the myeloid progenitor cell, while lymphocytes originate from the lymphoid progenitor cells |
| Summarize the process by which platelets are formed in thrombopoiesis | platelets are formed when large cells called megakaryocytic, produced in bone marrow, undergo cytoplasmic gragmentation, releasing small platelet fragments from proplatelet extensions |
| Explain the process by which erythrocyte components are recycled | once they are old and damaged, they are recycled by macrophages in the spleen and the liver, where the hemoglobin within the cell is broken down into it's components.-iron is reused to make new rbc in bone marro, bilirubin is excreted by the liver |
| Compare and contrast the different blood types and their importance when transfusing blood | primary distinction is in the presence or absence of specific antigens on the surface of rbc A is anti-B, can receive from A/ O B is anti-A, can receive from B/O AB has no anti-A and B-a universal recipient O has anti A and O, universal donor |
| Distinguish between granulocytes and agranulocytes, and compare and contrast the various types with respect to structure, abundance, and function | -granulocytes have a lobed nucleus and are involved in immediate immune responses -agranulocytes have a single, rounded nucleus and play a role in a targeted immune response |
| Define coagulation, and list the substances involved in coagulation | also known as blood clotting -substances involved in coagulation: platelets, clotting factors like fibrinogen, prothrombin, tissue factor, calcium ions, and phospholipids and interact in a cascade of reactions to produce fibrin strands that form a clot |
| Compare and contrast the intrinsic pathway and the extrinsic pathway for activating blood clotting | intrinsic-slower but mnore complex and activated by internal damage to the blood vessel wall extrinsic-faster due to fewer steps in the initiation and triggered by external trauma, by the release of tissue factor from damaged cells outside the vessel |
| Hemoglobin structure and function | found in rbc, composed of 4 protei chains (2 alpha and 2 beta) w and iron heme group at the center of the chain function is to carry O2 in the blood, giving blood its red color, while also transporting CO2 back to lungs |
| Hematocrit: male vs female PCV | Anemia-decreased HCT, low O2 carrying capacity Polycythemia-increased HCT, hypoxia, dehydration, blood doping |
| Describe the general function of the cardiovascular system | -transport O2 and nutrients -exchange of CO2 and waste products -perfusion in the delivery of blood of tissue |
| Differentiate among the 3 primary types of blood vessel | -arteries-carry blood away from the heart -veins-carry blood towards the heart -capillaries-site of exchange of O2 and CO2 |
| Describe the general structure | 4 chambers-R and L atria, R and L ventricle Great Vessels-SVC and IVC, deoxygenated blood from the upper and lower body 4 valves-tricuspid valve, semilunar valve, mitral valve, and aortic valve |
| Compare and contrast pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation of the cardiovascular system. Trace blood flow through both circulations | -pulmonary circulation refers to blood from heart to lungs, oxygenated -RV pumps blood to heart -systemic circukation carries oxygenated blood from heart to the rest of the body and returns deoxygenated -LV pumps blood to the aorta |
| Heart wall-3 layers | epicardium myocardium endocardium |
| List and describe the structural components of the pericardium, fibrous and serous | Fibrous pericardium -protects and anchors -prevents overstitching Serous pericardium -produce and release serous fluid into percardial activity |
| Myocardial thickness and function | atria-thin walled ventricles-thicker and stronger -L ventricle is thickest |
| Fibrous skeleton | -dense irregukar connective tissue -structural support between atria and ventricles -forms fibrous rings -rigid framework for attachment of cardiac muscle tissue -electrical insulator |
| Characterize the four chambers of the heart and sulci and their functions | RA-rec O2 poor from body and pumps blood to RV through triscupid RV-rec.O2 poor from RA and pumps blood to lungs through pulm a. LA-rec O2 rich from lungs through pulmonary v. and pumps blood through mitral LV-rec O2 rich from LA and pumps to the body |
| Compare and contrast the structure and function of the two types of heart valves and the circulation of blood | AV valves -R AV-prevents backflow from RV to RA -L AV-prevents backflow from LV to LA Semilunar valves -aortic semilunar valves-prevents backflow from aorta into LV -pulmonary semilunar valve-prevents backflow from trunk into RV |
| Action potential at the SA node and in the contractile cells | -the SA node action potential has a distinct spontaneous depolarization and initiates an electrial impulse -the contractile action potential relies on nthe incoming signal from teh SA node to trigger depolarization and contraction |
| Compare muscle physiology in skeletal muscles and cardiac muscle | both have striations and contract using the sliding filament mechanism |
| Describe the general structure of cardiac muscle, including intercalated discs | composed of branched cylindrical cells w/a single centrally located nucleus connected by intercalated discs, allows for coordinated contraction |
| Systole and Diastole in the cardiac cycle | systole-phase when the heart muscle contracts and pumps blood out diastole-phase when the heart muscle relaxes and fills with blood |
| Identify and locate the components of the heart’s conduction system | autorhythmic SA node-the pacemaker potential AV node at the floor of the RA Av bundle-bundle of branches and Purkinje fibers |
| Electocardiogram-ECG tracing with the cardiac cycle | shows distinct waves representing the electricak activity of the heart as it depolarizes and depolarizes -P wave-atrial contraction -QRS complex-rapid depolarization of ventricles -T wave-repolarization of the ventricles |
| What happens in the SV, EDV, and ESV steps in the cardiac cycle | SV-the volume of blood actually pumped out of the heart with each beat EDV-max volume of blood in the ventricle at the end of relaxation ESV-remaining blood after fully contracted anbd ejected as much blood as possible |
| Heart sounds (normal heart sounds) | four normal heart sounds -lub dub -S1 and S2 -S3 and S4 |
| Factors affecting cardiac output | -chronotropic agents -increase or decrease in HR -Venous return -Inotropic agents -afterload -stroke volume |
| List the five phases of the cardiac cycle | -atrial diastole -atrial systole -isovolumetric contraction -ventricular ejection -isovolumetric relaxation |
| Define cardiac output and formula | CO=SV x HR |
| Types of stimulation | neural-sympathetic div is activated, sympathetic preganglionic axons stimulate adrenal medula to release epi and norepi humoral-blood glucose inc, stimulates pancreas to release insulin hormonal-AP releases TSH, which stimulates thyroid to release TH |
| List the three variables that may influence stroke volume | Venous return Inotropic agents afterload |
| Define each of the three variables, and describe the factors that influence each variable and how each variable affects stroke volume | -preload-amount of clood filling the ventricles at the end of diastole -afterload-the resistance the heart must overcome to eject blood during systole -contractility-the force of the heart muscle contraction |
| Structure, function and hormones released of the hypothalamus | Pituitary gland -regulates hormone release |
| Structure, function and hormones released of the posterior pituitary | Pituitary gland -oxytocin-uterine contractions, breast milk release -antidiuretic hormone(ADH)-fluid balance |
| Structure, function and hormones released of the anterior pituitary and the hypophyseal portal system | Pituitary gland -TSH-release thyroid hormones -Prolactin-breast milk production -FSH-develop of gametes, follicle in female -LH-develop of gametes and ovulation -ACTH-stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortsteroids -GH-stimulates cell growth |
| Structure, function and hormones released of the thyroid gland and disorders | thyroid gland -thyroid hormone-increase metabolism -calcitonin-decrease blood calcium levels Graves' disease-thyroid gland makes too much thyroid hormone Goiter-enlarged thyroid |
| Structure, function and hormones released of the parathyroid gland | parathyroid hormone-increase blood calcium levels |
| Structure, function and hormones released of the adrenal gland and disorders | adrenal medulla-prolong fight or flight-epi and norepinephrine adrenal cortex -mineralocortocoids-aldosterone, regulate blood Na/ K levels -Glucocorticoids-cortisol, participate in stress response -Gonadocorticoids-androgens, stimulate maturation |
| Structure, function and hormones released of the pancreas and pancreatic disorders | -insulin -to decrease blood glucose -glucagon -to nincrease blood glucose Diabetes mellitus-too much sugar in the blood |
| Structure, function and hormones released of the pineal gland | melatonin-helps with sleep |
| Structure, function and hormones released of the ovaries and testes | -androgens-stimulate maturation of male -estrogen, progesterone, and inhibin-stimulate maturation of female |
| GH disorders of the pituitary gland | Pituitary dwarfism-not enough GH gigantism-overproductiob of GH in childhood acromegaly-pituitary gland produces too much GH |
| ADH disorders of the pituitary gland | diabetes insipidus |
| Leukocytosis | increase in WBC |
| Leukopenia | decrease in WBC |
| Diapedesis | also known as Emigration, process by which abc pass through blood vessel walls and into tissues |
| Chemotaxis | attraction by chemicals, movement of an organism or cell in response to. chemical stimulus |
| Function of platelets | function in hemostasis -vascular spasm -platelet plug formation -blood coagulation |
| thrombopoietin (TPO) | from kidney and liver-myeloid stem cell |
| Blood types, compatibility, and transfusion | Type A, anti-B Type B, anti-A Type AB, no anti-A or B Type O, anti-A and Anti-B Universal donor-O- Universal Recipient-AB+ |
| blood clotting disorders | thrombocytopenia-low mplatelet count thrombocytosis-high platelet count hemophilia-inherited deficiency of clotting factor, bleeding spontaneously sickle-cell anemia-defective HgB gene, become sickle shaped in low O2 |
| Conn's syndrome Cushing's syndrome Addison's disease | Conn's-primary aldosteronism, excess production of aldosterone from the adrenal glands Cushing's-when the body has too mnuch cortisol, which controls bp, lowers inflammation, and keeps heart and vessels flowing |
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