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Exam 3 IN
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Define Learning | process of acquiring new information |
| Define Memory | ability to store and retrieve information |
| What is the law of mass action? | severity of memory impairment correlates to the size of the cortical lesion |
| What is the significance of patient H.M? | had bilateral temporal surgery for epilepsy and developed Anterograde amnesia |
| What is Anterograde amnesia? | cant make new memories past "x" but can remember prior to "x" |
| What is Retrograde amnesia? | can't remember old memories but can make new ones |
| What regions of H.M's brain were altered? (ablations) | Hippocampus Parahippocampal gyrus Amygdala (did not alter mood) |
| What is the Morris Water Maze? | Control= Rat were put into a pool with hidden platform they learned where the platform was. Experiment= Rats were given hippocampal lesions and they were unable to learn where the platform was |
| What is the significance of Morris Water Maze? | Hippocampus is needed to encode and consolidate memories |
| What is the extent of short term memory? | 7+/- 2 digits for 30 sec |
| What is Declarative/explicit memory? | conscious memory ( daily recaps, words and their meanings, history, etc...) |
| What is Nondeclarative/implicit memory? | non-conscious memory (motor skills, associations, priming, puzzle solving skills, etc...) |
| Patient H.M. had complete deficits in acquiring ____ _______ memory? | new declarative |
| What type of memory mostly remained intact in patient H.M? | non-declarative/implicit memory |
| What is episodic memory? | memory of "episodes"/events of life |
| What is semantic memory? | facts (ex: Austin is the capital of Tx) |
| How did lesions of patient K.C affect their memory? | deficits of antero- & retro-grade episodic memory semantic memory remined intact (could acquire some new ones) |
| What is the significance of patient K.C? | suggest hippocampus is specific for episodic memory |
| Episodic and Semantic are what types of memory? | Declarative |
| Skill learning, Priming, and Conditioning are what types of memory? | Non-declarative |
| What is Priming? | exposure to once stimulus can evoke response of linked stimuli |
| What are Associations in relation to memory? | role of previous knowledge and/or motivation |
| what areas of the brain are associated with the BG? | BG. Ventral Thalamus, Amygdala, SN, Cerebellum, Premotor cortex |
| What areas of the brain are associated with Declarative memory? | Thalamus, Hippocampus, Rhinal cortex, Amygdala, Mammillary body, Prefrontal cortex, Basal forebrain, Fornix |
| Within the hippocampus, what is LTP? | strengthening of connection between CA3 & CA1 synapse(s) |
| What is early phase long term memory (LTM)? | memory that last days-weeks |
| What is late phase LTM? | memory that last months-years |
| What is Synaptic Plasticity? | generation and degradation of new synapses between neurons |
| What is LTP? | Long Term Potentiation (LTP), form of synaptic plasticity |
| What are the similarities between LTP and LTM? | triggered rapidly depends on synthesis of new proteins last for many months |
| Within a synapse, what does "learning" generate? | Postsynaptic receptors that allow neuron to register the increase NT release (also caused by learning) |
| CA3 pyramidal cells are on what side of the synapse? | Presynaptic |
| CA1 pyramidal cells are on what side of the synapse? | Postsynaptic |
| What is tetanization? | High frequency stimulation (triggered by rehearsal during the learning process) |
| What does rehearsal lead to? | increased number of Axonal Termini per Dendritic spine = increased memory & learning |
| What is LTD? | Long Term Depression, retraction of synapses (axonal termini retract from dendritic spine) |
| What do we think LTD is responsible for? | forgetting of information previously learned |
| On the synaptic level, describe the process of STM | NT (glutamate) bind to AMPARs & NMDARs on the postsynaptic neuron and allow Ca2+ influx. Ca2+ activates Calmodulin which activates Protein Kinases |
| On the synaptic level, describe the process of late-phase LTM | NT (glutamate) bind to AMPARs & NMDARs on the postsynaptic neuron and allow Ca2+ influx. Ca2+ activates Calmodulin which activates Protein Kinases. PKA triggers the CREB cycle which produces nerve growth factor. Then NGF triggers AMPAR synthesis |
| Which receptor involved in late-phase LTM is fast acting? | AMPA |
| Which receptor involved in late-phase LTM is slow acting? | NMDA |
| What normally occurs when aging? | Decrease in brain volume |
| Why does brain volume decrease as we age? | mostly due to loss of synapses (keep same # of neurons, just lose excess connections) |
| What memory declines early on? | STM (working memory) |
| What are key contributors to age-related decline in various cognitive function? | executive function impairment |
| What are the 3 Hypotheses of AD? | Amyloid plaques Neurofibrially Tangle Loss of neurons |
| What is the Amyloid Plaque hypothesis of AD? | mutant genes (presenilin 1 & 2) increase risk of developing toxic form of amyloid beta |
| What are Amyloid plaques? | Amyloid beta, normally has enzymatic and neuroprotective functions, toxic mutation can lead to AD |
| What is the Neurofibrially Tangle hypothesis of AD? | AD is caused by the clumping of hyperphosphorylated tau proteins |
| What are Tau proteins? | proteins that normally stabilize cytoskeletal microtubules, tangling can lead to AD |
| What characterizes sleep? | reduced or absent consciousness relatively suspended sensory activity inactivity of nearly all voluntary muscles |
| What are the functions of sleep? | Restoration Energy Conservation Ecological adaptation Memory Consolidation |
| What other forms of sleep are there? | sleeping for short periods of time (couple mins) one hemisphere sleeps at a time |
| What is an Ultradian rhythm? | occurring multiple times a day (eating, breathing, heart rate, action potentials etc.) |
| What is a Circadian rhythm? | occurs about once a day (sleep wake cycle, hormones, body temp regulation, electrolyte regulation etc...) |
| What is an Infradian rhythm? | occurring over multiple days (mensuration, aging, development, etc...) |
| How long does the circadian rhythm last? | 26+ hours (inaccurate clock) |
| When does melatonin secretion start? | around 9pm (21:00) |
| When does melatonin secretion stop? | around 7:30 am (07:30) |
| When does melatonin secretion start to slow? | after midnight (00:00) |
| What is the SCN? | Suprachiasmatic Nucleus |
| What does the SCN control the circadian rhythm of ? | sleep physical activity alertness hormone levels body temp immune function digestive activity |
| Where is light-induced gene expression shown in the SCN? | Ventrolateral SCN |
| What is Entrainment? | relay of light stimulation throughout SCN by the ventrolateral SCN |
| How is the Pineal gland modulated by the SCN? | sympathetic preganglionic neurons |
| What secretes melatonin? | Pineal gland |
| What are RGCs? | Photosensitive retinal ganglion cells |
| Where do RGCs synapse in the circadian circuit? | SCN of Hypothalamus |
| Where does the SCN project to in the circadian circuit? | Paraventricular Nucleus of Hypothalamus |
| Where does the Paraventricular nucleus project to in the circadian circuit? | Spinal cord (Intermediolateral cell column) |
| Where do Intermediolateral column cells project to in the circadian circuit? | Superior cervical ganglion |
| Where do Superior Cervical Ganglion project to in the circadian circuit? | Pineal Gland |
| What does melatonin do? | decrease motor activity, induce fatigue, and lower body temp |
| Is melatonin endogenous or exogenous? | endogenous |
| What does darkness "signal/tell" the SCN to do? | turn on pineal gland to produce melatonin |
| How many sleep cycles so we experience throughout the night? | 3-4 |
| What stage of sleep accounts for 4-5% of a cycle? | Stage 1 |
| What stage of sleep account for 45-55% of a cycle? | Stage 2 |
| What stage of sleep accounts for 4-6% of a cycle? | Stage 3 |
| What stage of sleep accounts for 12-25% of a cycle? | Stage 4 |
| What stage of sleep accounts for 20-25% of a cycle? | REM (stage 5) |
| What defines Stage 1 of the sleep cycle? | light sleep muscle activity slows down with occasional twitching |
| What defines stage 2 of the sleep cycle? | Respiration and Heart rate slows Slight decrease in body temp |
| What defines stage 3 of the sleep cycle? | Deep sleep starts slow delta waves |
| What defines stage 4 of the sleep cycle? | v deep sleep rhythmic breathing limited muscle activity delta waves |
| What defines stage 5 (REM) of the sleep cycle? | Rapid Eye Movement Brainwaves speed up Dreaming Muscles relax Heart rate increases Rapid and shallow breathing |
| When does most benefits of sleep occur? | REM |
| What EEG aspect is shown during stage 1 of the sleep cycle? | theta activity |
| During the sleep cycle when is brain activity similar to Awake? | REM |
| What EEG aspect is shown during stage 2 of the sleep cycle? | sleep spindles |
| What EEG aspect is shown during stage 3&4 of the sleep cycle? | Delta (slow wave sleep) |
| What is another name for REM sleep? | Paradoxical sleep |
| What EEG activity is shown when awake? | alpha and beta activity |
| Typically, how many SWS stages occur per night? | 2 |
| How many REM stages occur per night? | 5 that progressively get longer |
| How is a single sleep cycle measured? | Awake->REM |
| How does the reticular formation cause decreased motor output during REM sleep? | GABAergic cells of the Pedunculopontine nucleus (RF) suppressing LMN activity |
| During which stage of the sleep cycle is brain energy consumption the least? | stage 4 |
| What stages of sleep have similar levels of brain energy consumption? | Awake and REM |
| Non-REM sleep is characterized by a ____ brain in an _____ body? | inactive, active |
| REM sleep is characterized by a _____ brain in an _____ body? | active, inactive |
| What characterizes non-REM dreams? | shorter less visual less emotional more thought-like related to everyday activities |
| What characterizes REM dream? | longer movie-like emotional sometimes "bizarre" |
| What circuit shows an increase in activity during REM sleep? | Limbic system (emotion processing) |
| What areas of the brain decrease in activity during REM sleep? | Prefrontal cortex and Posterior Cingulate cortex |
| What is REM atonia? | Decreased motor output during REM sleep |
| What nuclei is suppressed by RF neurons during REM sleep to decrease sensory response? | Dorsal Column Nuclei |
| What is the Reticular Activating System? | (circuitry for sleep and wakefulness) stimulation of Cholinergic neurons in the Pons and Midbrain to promote wakefullness |
| What is the source of Pontine-Geniculo-Occipital (PGO) waves during REM sleep? | Reticular activating system |
| Where do cholinergic nuclei in the Pons and Midbrain project to ? | Thalamus and Cortex |
| When does cholinergic nuclei in the Pons and Midbrain show high activity? | During Waking |
| What does low activity of cholinergic nuclei in the pons and midbrain bring on? | non-REM sleep |
| What gradually increase in activity during REM-sleep? | Cholinergic nuclei in the Pons and Midbrain (Reticular activating system) |
| What kind of neurons are in the Raphe? | Serotonergic |
| When are 5-HT neurons of the Raphe active? | wakefulness |
| Noradrenergic neurons of the Locus Coeruleus (LC) are _____ during sleep | inactive |
| When are noradrenergic neurons of the LC active? | waking and arousal/stress |
| What kind of neurons in the Tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) of the Hypothalamus promote wakefulness? | HA (histamine) |
| Why do antihistamines cause drowsiness? | affect same HARs that promote wakefullness (antihistamine comp antag?) |
| What NT promotes wakefulness, regulates appetite, and modulates the TMN and LC? | Orexin |
| What does Orexin do to brain nuclei with roles in wakefulness? | excite |
| What disorder destroys Orexin neurons? | Narcolepsy |
| What does Adenosine do to Orexin | decrease release (inhibits) |
| What NT presynaptically inhibits Glu and DA? | Adenosine |
| What is caffeine to adenosine? | antag, bind and inactivates receptor |
| What can happen when someone builds up caffeine tolerance? | increased metabolism of caffeine |
| What is Narcolepsy? | sleep attacks with cataplexy |
| What is cataplexy? | loss of muscle control |
| What causes Narcolepsy? | mutation of orexin receptors |
| How fast does someone with Narcolepsy go into REM sleep? | within 5mins, almost immediately |
| BDZs inhibit the ___ and Na+ channels by increasing ______ activity | CNS, GABA |
| What are BDZs used as? | Anxiolytics, Hypnotics, and Anesthesia (dose dependent) |
| Damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, like in the Phineas Gage case, produces what kind of behavior? | erratic, "acquired sociopathy" |
| What is acquired sociopathy? | brain injury that causes no reaction to emotional events, and inability to make personal or social decisions |
| What part of the brain is mostly involved in impulse control? | ventral orbitofrontal cortex |
| What is the James-Lange theory? | conscious feeling follows bodily changes |
| What evidence was there to support the james-lange theory? | using facial muscles to mimic emotion can produce said emotion, people with spinal cord damage show reduced emotional intensity |
| What ensure that muscle movements match the appropriate emotion? | Behavior |
| What facilitates behavior? | ANS activity |
| What facilitates ANS activity? | Hormones |
| What is arousal level? | biological release of adrenaline, can be (+) or (-) emotions |
| What component of emotion prepares the body for action and allows for us to communicate our emotion to other people? | Peripheral |
| What does arousal enhance? | intellectual and physical performance |
| What is the cannon-bard theory? | Emotional expression results from hypothalamus and emotional feeling results from stimulations of dorsal thalamus (**arousal does not have to occur before the emotion**) |
| What is Sham Rage? | undirected defensive and offensive aggression in animals |
| What connection is required for Sham rage? | brainstem connection to caudal hypothalamus |
| What can cause uninhibited hypothalamic discharge (sham rage) in humans? | hypothalamic lesions, carbon monoxide poisoning, and insulin hypoglycemia |
| What inhibits anger? | severing connection between Caudal Hypothalamus and Brain Stem |
| What does the hypothalamus contribute to expression of emotion? | coordinates peripheral expression |
| What is the HPA axis? | Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (connection of paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus to ant. pituitary to adrenal glands) |
| What does the HPA axis regulate? | hormonal stress response |
| What hormone is released by the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus in response to stress? | CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone) |
| What hormone is released into the bloodstream by the anterior pituitary in response to CRH? | ACTH (adreno-corticotropic hormone) |
| What hormone does the Adrenal gland release into the bloodstream in response to ACTH? | Cortisol (stress response), Norepinephrine & Epinephrine (adrenaline response) |
| What effects does stress have on the body? | suppresses immune system and increases HR, BP, Catabolism |
| What is the Papez circuit? (7 steps, 6 structures and 1 white matter tract) | Hippocampus--> Mammillary Bodies --> Mammillothalamic Tract --> Anterior Thalamic Nucleus --> Cingulate Gyrus --> Hippocampal Formation |
| What is Kluver-Bucy syndrome? | bilateral lesions of amygdala resulting is decreased emotional reactions, Pica or Overeating, Hyperorality, Hypersexuality, and Visual agnosia |
| What is Visual agnosia? | inability to recognize familiar objects or people |
| What is Hyperorality? | tendency or compulsion to examine objects by mouth |
| What role does the Amygdala play in emotions? | mediates emotional behavior and motivation by evaluating emotional value of sensory stimuli |
| What systems does the Amygdala represent a connection for? | Limbic and Extrapyramidal systems |
| How does language let us express thoughts to the outside world? | through syntactic rules and words |
| What are the basic functions of language? | Comprehension (sensory/perceptual function) and Speaking ( motor function) |
| What is the sensory/perceptual function of language? | Comprehension |
| What is the motor function of language? | Speaking |
| What is grammar? | rules of how symbols and words go together |
| Where is Broca's Areas? | Frontal cortex of dominant hemisphere (usually left) |
| What role in language does Broca's area play? | speech production |
| What role does Wernicke's area play in language? | comprehension/understanding of written and spoken language |
| Where is Wernicke's area? | Temporal lobe near Auditory cortex of dominant hemisphere (usually left) |
| What white matter tract connects Wernicke's and Broca's areas? | Arcuate Fasciculus |
| What is the Arcuate Fasciculus? | white matter tract connecting speech comprehension areas with speech production areas |
| What does a FOXP2 mutation cause? | impairment of orofacial movements which inhibit ability to make proper word sounds |
| T/F: People with FOXP2 gene mutation can speak, just not very well | T |
| What is the importance of FOXp2 gene? | encodes transcription factor required for proper brain and lung development |
| What is Broca's Aphasia? | Expressive Aphasia, slow and non-fluent speech (know what they want to say but cant get it out) |
| what would lesions in the left posterior frontal lobe cause? | motor planning deficits |
| What is Dysarthria? | inability to move muscles that mediate speech (mouth, tongue, and larynx) |
| What is Wernicke's Aphasia? | Sensory/Receptive Aphasia, impairment of written and spoken language comprehension (speech is normal but nonsense, they also don't know they are not making sense) |
| What is conduction aphasia? | Associative aphasia, fluent and meaningful speech with very poor repetition |
| What causes conduction aphasia? | Arcuate Fasciculus conveys info about sounds but not meaning, causes disruption of short-term memory/rehearsal of words and speech (**lesions w/in arcuate fasciculus**) |
| What Aphasias have fluent speech production? | Wernicke's and Conduction |
| What Aphasias have impaired speech production? | Broca's |
| What Aphasias have impaired sentence repetition? | Broca's, Wernicke's, and Conduction |
| What Aphasias have normal speech comprehension? | Broca's and Conduction |
| What Aphasias have impaired speech comprehension? | Wernicke's |
| What type of Aphasias have impaired naming of objects? | Wernicke's and Conduction |
| What type of aphasias have a normal naming of objects function? | Broca's |
| What hemisphere is mostly responsible for speech? | Left, ~90% of people |
| What would lesions in the dominant speech hemisphere do to the lateralization? | might shift it to non dominant hemisphere |
| What % of right handed people have right-hemisphere speech dominance? | 4% |
| What % of ambidextrous people have right hemisphere speech dominance? | 15% |
| What % of left-handed people have right hemisphere speech dominance? | 27% |
| What is spilt brain? | corpus callosum and anterior commissure is transected (cut) |
| What is split brain treatment for? | Epilepsy |
| What projections remain intact in split brain patients? | bilateral thalamic projections |
| How does split brain affect the left hemisphere? | able to name object within the right hand or right visual field |
| How does spilt brain affect the right hemisphere? | objects in the left hand or left visual field struggle to be named |
| What is stereognosis? | ability to perceive the form of solid objects by touch or brief exposure to a visual field |
| What is the Planum Temporale? | cortical area posterior to auditory cortex within sylvian fissure |
| What is the anatomical difference in left and right Planum Temporale? | Cone shaped (starts thinner and ends wider) in the left compared to more rectangle shape in the right (** left is larger than right**) |
| Westward travel is less disruptive to the circadian rhythm than eastward travel, partially due to the fact that it is easier to sleep _____ rather than ______. | easier to sleep later rather than when not sleepy |
| What is melatonin? | hormone that activates sleep |
| What is the pathway that uses external lighting conditions to alter circadian rhythms? | Retinal Thalamic |
| What effect will light have on melatonin? | suppress |
| Which rhythms are shorter than circadian rhythms? | Ultradian |
Created by:
trejonathan93
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