Help
Options
Didn't know it?
click below
click below
Knew it?
click below
click below
Don't Know
Remaining cards (0)
Know
retry
shuffle
restart
0:00
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Pathophys. - Mod. 1
Intro. to Pathophys. and Cell Biology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| what is the definition of "pathophysiology" | Not only the cellular and organ changes that occur with disease, but also the effects that these changes have on total body function. |
| 5 etiologic factors | 1) bacterial 2) physical forces 3) chemical agents 4) genetic inheritance 5) nutritional excesses of deficiences |
| (etiologic factors) give an example of bacterial agents | bacterial and viruses |
| (etiologic factors) give an example of physical forces | trauma, burns, radiation |
| (etiologic factors) give an example of chemical agents | poisons, alcohol |
| what are the 2 types of risk factors | 1) congenital conditions (present at birth) 2) acquired defects (occurring after birth) |
| what is the difference between morphology and histology? | Morphology - defined as the fundamental structure or form of cells/tissue Histology - the study of cells and extracellular matrix of body tissues |
| what is a symptom | a subjective complain (i.e. pain, trouble breathing, dizziness) |
| what is a sign | an objective manifestation (elevated temperature, swollen extremity, changes in pupil size) |
| what are three (3) important processes when coming to a diagnosis | 1) careful history 2) physical exam (PE) 3) sometimes diagnostic tests |
| explain validity | how a tool measures what it is intended to measure |
| explain reliability | how likely the same result will occur with repeated tests |
| explain sensitivity | the proportion of people with a disease who are positive for that disease |
| explain specificity | are people without the disease who are negative on a given test |
| define epidemiology | the study of disease occurrance in human populations |
| what can epidemiology track | - age - race - dietary habits - lifestyle - geographic location |
| what is incidence | the number of new case in a population at risk during a specified time |
| what is prevalence | the number of people with the disease in a population in a given time |
| define mortality | statistics that are dealing with the cause of death in a reculation |
| define morbidity | the effect of an illness on one's life |
| "Health" defined by WHO | state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity. |
| "health" defined by US Dept. of Health & Human Services | 1) attain lives free of preventable disease, disability, injury, and premature death 2) achieve health equity & eliminate disparities 3) promote good health for all 4) promote healthy behaviors across the live span |
| what is disease | illness leading to abnormal physical function of an organ/structure/system |
| disease process includes the following: | - etiology - pathogenesis - morphologic changes - clinical manifestation - diagnosis - clinical course |
| define etiological factors | things that cause disease |
| what are idiopathic etiological factors. | idiopathic ("unknown") and nonspecific factors |
| define primary prevention and give an example | (definition) to remove risk factors to prevent disease from occurring (examples) taking daily/prenatal vitamins, vaccinating children, eating healthy, exercising, wearing seatbelts/helmets |
| define secondary prevention and give an example | (definition) aims to detect and treat disease very early on. usually while the disease is asymptomatic and (usually) curable. (examples) pap smears (cervical cancer), encouraging smoking ceassation, checking BP and cholesterol, colonoscopy screening |
| define tertiary prevention and give an example | (definition) after disease has been diagnosed and clinical intervention is needed to reduce complication or deterioration (example) certain medications one must take after a heart attack to help reduce the the risk of a future event or death |
| what is evidence-based practice | the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients. |
| why is evidence-based practice important | to counteract "the way things have always been done." mentality and to practice based on clinical research |
| what are the three (3) primary structures of the cell | all eukaryotic cells contains the nucleous, the cytoplasm, and the plasma membrane |
| what is the function of the nucleous | the nucleous is the control center for the cell and contains most of the hereditary material, DNA and RNA |
| name 3 structures within the nucleous | - chromatin - nucleolus - nuclear envelope |
| what organelles are located in the cytoplasm | - ribosomes - ER - golgi Complex (golgi apparatus) - mitochondria - lysosomes |
| what is the role(s) of the ribosomes | ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis in the cell |
| what is the role(s) of the rough ER | has ribosomes and functions to synthesize lysosomal enzymes |
| what is the role(s) of the smooth ER | this does not have ribosomes, this organelle is the site for lipid, lipoprotein, and steroid hormone synthesis |
| what is the role(s) of lysosmes | digestive system of the cell |
| what is the role(s) of peroxisomes | smaller than lysosomes and function to control the free radicles |
| what is the role(s) of mitochondria | "power plants" of the cell, as they transform organic compounds (energy in food) into cellular energy for the cell |
| what is contained in the cytoskeleton and what is its functions | They control cell shape and movement. - microtubules - microfilaments - thick filaments - intermediate filaments |
| describe risk factors | - factors that predispose a person to a given disease - it is believed that most diseases result from interaction of heredity and environmental factors. |
| what is pathogenesis | development of disease processes |
| the study of many diseases is done by the study of (histology/morphologic) | HISTOLOGY |
| clinical manifestations are | how a disease presents itself. - signs that are seen and heard through a physical exam - pt history |
| change in pupil dilation is a (sign/symptom) | Pupil dilation is a SIGN |
| change in reflexes is a (sign/symptom) | change in reflexes is a SIGN |
| any feeling that is explained to you by the patient is considered a (sign/symptom) | SYMPTOM |
| define a syndrome | group of multiple signs and symptoms occurring together |
| define complications | potential adverse effects of a disease/treatments |
| define sequelae | lesions/impairments that follow or are caused by a particular disease |
| define diagnosis | the process of identifying cause of given health problem/disease |
| what is predictive value | - ability of a test result or observation to predict the prescence of a disease/condition - relies on sensitivity and specificity |
| positive predictive value of a test | the portion of true positive results |
| negative predictive value of a test | the portion of true negative results |
| three categories of clinical courses | - acute - chronic - subacute |
| acute diseases | - self-limiting - severe |
| chronic diseases | - long-term - continuous - periods of exacerbations and remissions |
| subacute diseases | between acute and chronic |
| what is disease frequency | predicts whether a disease is on the rise |
| number of existing cases divided by the number of the current population = | prevalence |
| number of new cases divided by the number of members in the population who are at risk of developing the disease = | incidents |
| define prognosis | the predicted outcome and the likelihood of recovery |
| what is the purpose of tertiary prevention | to prescribe medications and decrease the complications from disease |
| what are clinical practice guidlines | they are algorithms and written directives that help practitioners deliver health care in certain circumstances |
| what are cross-sectional studies | collection of data from different groups simultaneously, helps classify exposure to outcomes and compares two different groups with disease and risk factors |
| what are case-control studies | comparing two groups of subjects ---case subjects ---control subjects |
| what are cohort studies (longitudinal studies) | studies that involve groups of people born at the same time and share and share same characteristics |
| smallest functional unit of life | the cell |
| define tissue | groups of cells with similar functions |
| what is chromatin | a complex structure of DNA and associated protein |
| alterations in the structure of chromatin & ____________________ of DNA and can lead to neoplasms | hypermethylation |
| describe the nucleolus | - inside the nucleus - rRNA is processed and assembled - contains 5 chromasomes |
| describe the nuclear envelope | -2 membranes that surround the nucleus -contains pores that allow passage of ----- fluids ----- RNA ----- protein ----- hormones |
| the ____________________ (organelle) helps regulate intracellular calcium | smooth ER |
| list all the thing that the smooth ER helps produce | - lipids, - lipoprotiens - steroids - calcium regulation - hormones - detoxification of drugs and other toxins |
| the nucleus contains | - chromatin - nucleus - nucleolus |
| list components of the cytoplasm | - ribosomes - (smoot/rough) ER - golgi apparatus - lysosomes - peroxisomes - proteasomes - mitochondria - cytoskeleton |
| where are the following items made: - digestive enzymes - plasma proteins | rough ER |
| what is a great way to damage the ER | proteins are accumulating faster than they are processed |
| what happens when the ER is damaged | can cause inflammation and cell death |
| name a few diseases that are linked to ER damage | -inflammatory bowel disease - myositis - DMI |
| diseases linked to lysosome storage disorders | - tay-sachs - glycogen storage diseases |
| what happens in lysosome storage diseases | - the lysosomal enzyme activity is absent/inactive - the lysosome is unable to digest substances |
| the inside of the lysosome is sightly (acidic/basic) compared to the rest of the cytoplasm | ACIDIC |
| define heterophagy | the digestion of a phygocytosed substance |
| heterophagy, step by step | 1- plasma membrane encapsulated substance 2 - phagosome forms 3 - phagosome combines with primary lysosomes 4 - secondary lysosome is formed |
| macrophages and neutrophils conduct (heterophagy/autophagy) | HETEROPHAGY |
| define autophagy | digestion of damaged organelles --- helps the cell continue to function properly --- best seen in atrophy |
| it is the (primary/secondary) lysosomes that breakdown macromolecules | SECONDARY lysosomes |
| what are residual bodies | - substances that cannot be broken down - remain in cytoplasm - leave via exocytosis |
| what do peroxisomes break down | - peroxides ----- hydrogen peroxide ----- long chain fatty acids ----- help to form bile |
| what are proteasomes | protein complexes that break down other proteins, they specifically target proteins that are misinformed (quality control) |
| microtubules are made by proteins called _________________________ | tubulin |
| this component of the cytoskeleton is capable of disassembling and reassembling in a different area of the cytoplasm | microtubules |
| what is the function of microtubules | - maintain cell form - intracellular transport - form cellular structures |
| what is cellular respiration | - the use of oxygen to change organic compounds to energy (ATP) |
| mitochondria (does/does not) play a role in apoptosis | mitochondria DOES play a role in apoptosis |
| in cancer the apoptosis rate is (increased/decreased) and in degenerative diseases the apoptosis rate is (increased/decreased) | cancer = DECREASE degenerative diseases = INCREASED |
| name four important organelles made by microtubules | - centrioles - basal bodies - cilia - flagella |
| function of the centrioles | - creates mitotic spindles to separate and move chromosomes |
| function of the basal bodies | - organization they are found in cilia and flagella |
| microtubule filled cell extensions include, | cilia and flagella |
| cell motility is primarily performed by | flagella |
| where can cilia be found | - epithelial linings (especially nasal sinuses and brochi or upper respiratory system) |
| immotile cilia syndrome | results from disease and cilia become immotile (ex: bronchiectasis) |
| microfilament components | - thin microfilaments - intermediate microfilaments - thick myosin filaments |
| (microtubules/microfilaments) are found in the microvilli of the intestines | MICROFILAMENTS |
| actin in muscle are made out of | thin filaments |
| thick myosin filaments are mostly found in what tissue | (striated) muscle |
| function of the intermediate microfilaments | maintain support and shape of cell. mostly found in the epidermalkeratinocytes |
| what is the neurofibillary triangle and what disease is it associated with. | (disease) Alzheimer's (definition) disruption of microtubules of the brain cells |
| where in the body is flagella found | flagella is only found in the spermatozoa |
| name the four (4) functions of the cell membrane | 1- transport of materials to and from the outside of the cell 2 - binds to hormone receptors 3 - helps with the conduction of electrical currents in the nerve and muscle cells 4 - aids in the regulation of cell growth and proliferation |
| why do cells communicate with one another | - they must have the ability to communicate for transport, allowing substances in and out, and respond to changes. |
| name the 4 types of cell signaling | - autocrine - paracrine - endocrine - synaptic signaling |
| describe the function of surface receptors | every cell has a distinct set of surface receptors that allow it to respond to signally molecules in a specific way. these proteins can increase of decrease in number according to the needs of the cell. |
| process of down regulation | when there are too many chemical messengers present, the number of active receptors decrease |
| process of up regulation | when the messengers are lacking, the number of active receptors increase |
| name the 3 receptor proteins | - G-protein-linked - ion channel-linked - enzyme-linked |
| describe G-protein-linked receptors | - largest in number - have ligand-binding extracellular component - function as an on/off switch - 2nd messenger system (using GTP_ ----- inactive receptors bind to GDP ----- GDP => GTP (once receptors are activated) |
| describe ion-channel-linked receptors | neurotransmitters |
| describe enzyme-linked receptors | - growth factors and very specific receptors - activates an associated intracellular domain - ligand binding outside the cell |
| explain diffusion | the process by which electrolytes move from an area of higher concentration on one side of a membrane to an area of lower concentration on the other side |
| explain facilitated diffusion | use of a transport protein to help lipid insoluble or large molecules pass through membrane, that would otherwise not be able to get through |
| explain active transport | when cells use energy to move ions *against* an electrochemical gradient |
| what is the most important active transport system? why is it so important? | (What) the sodium/potassium-ATPase pump. Sodium moved out and Potassium moved in (Why) water follows sodium, without this pump. sodium would remain inside the cell and water would follow, causing swelling (why) |
| what are the two processes of endocytosis | 1 - pinocytosis 2 - phagocytosis |
| what is endocytosis | when a molecule outside the cell is enclosed in an invagination of the cell membrane forming a vesicle inside the cell |
| describe pinocytosis | - "cell drinking" - engulfing small solid or fluid particles (i.e. electrolytes and proteins) |
| describe phaygocytosis | - "cell eating" - engulfs and then kills a microorganism or other particulate matter |
| why are ion channels necessary | ions have and electrical charge (polar) while the plasma membrane is nonpolar. as a result ions cannot pass through naturally. ion channels allow ions to pass freely by facilitated diffusion though selective ion chanels |
| active fluid mosaic structure of the plasma membrane includes ______________________% phospholipids | 75% phospholipids |
| describe the phospholipid structure | head = hydrophilic tail = hydrophobic |
| what is an integral protein | a protein structure that spans the entire membrane |
| what is a peripheral protein | only on one side of the membrane, the protein does not pass throught |
| how does endocrine communication work | through the use of hormones in the blood stream. they manage cell function from a distance |
| how does paracrine communication work | - chemical mediators - they communicate with neighboring cells only |
| how does autocrine communication work | - the cell releases chemicals into the extracellular space, then reacts to them |
| how does synaptic communication work | - neural in origin - the use of neurotransmitters in gaps between cells (synapses) |
| how are cell receptors activated | when a chemical messenger binds to a cell receptor |
| what kind of substance can bind to a cell receptor | - neurotransmitter - steroid - protein hormone - growth factor - other chemical messengers |
| what is a 1st messenger | - primary activators - initial activation leads to a specific action inside a cell |
| what is a 2nd messenger | - additional steps by which a mechanism is employed by a cell to achieve physiological response - helps to increase receptor specificity ----- shape always dictates function |
| the enzyme-linked receptor responds to | - increased sodium/potassium exchange - calcium ion influx - sugar uptake - amino acid uptake |
| describe intracellular recepors | - receptors that are inside the cytoplasm ---- not exposed to external environment - when activated by chemicals that are capable of diffusing through the cell membrane ----- thyroid and steroid-based hormones |
| what happens to intracellular receptors once they are activated | the hormone-receptor complex is brought to the nucleus where it binds to DNA ---- leads to an increased transcription rate |
| list the forms of passive transport | - diffusion - osmosis -facilitated diffusion |
| define/describe osmosis | - movement of water based on the concentration of solute ---- water moves from a solute with high concentration to an area of low concentration - water uses *aquaporins* to move in and out of a cell |
| define osmotic pressure | the force/pressure generated by the movement of water during osmosis |
| the speed of facilitated diffusion is dependent on | the number of available transport protiens |
| define primary active transport | ATP is used to directly to transport the substance |
| define secondary active transport | energy is derived from primary active transport (usually the sodium/potassium pump). as sodium diffuses back into the cell it assists with the transport (cotransport/counter-transport) of another molecule |
| what is cotransport (symport) | when sodium and the solute being transported are moving in the same direction |
| what is counter-transport (antiport) | when sodium and the substrate are moving in opposite directions. |
| what are membrane potentials | the electrical potential that exists in the cell membrane |
| in muscles and nerves, what is the importance of membrane potential | they are needed to generated nerve impulses and muscle contractions. |
| in other cells (such as endocrine glands), changes in the membrane potential can cause | hormone secretion |
| name the four (4) different types of tissue | 1 - epithelial 2 - connective 3 - muscle 4 - nervous |
| describe the characteristics of epithelial tissue | - covers the outer surface and lines the inner surface - forms glandular tissue - it is avascular (without blood vessels) |
| describe the characteristics of connective tissue | - connects and binds/supports the various tissues |
| describe the characters of muscle tissue | - moves the skeletal structures - pumps blood through the heart - contracts blood vessels and other visceral organs |
| describe characteristics of nervous tissue | - communication - provides means for controlling body function and for sensing and moving about the environment |
| what is atrophy | the decrease in size of an organ or tissue resulting from a decrease in the mass of pre-existing cells. |
| what causes atrophy | usually is a result from disuse nutritional or oxygen deprivation, diminished endocrine stimulation, aging, and denervation (lack of nerve stimulation in peripheral muscle caused by injury to motor nerves). |
| define hypertrophy | an increase in the size of an organ/tissue due to an increase in the size of cells |
| define hyperplasia | an increase in the size of an organ/tissue caused by an increase in the number of cells |
| what is the difference be tween hypertrophy and hyperplasia | hypertrophy = cell size hyperplasia = cell number |
| what is the advantage of metaplasia | allows for the substitution of cells that can better handle chronic irritations and inflammation. |
| what is the disadvantage of metaplasia | under persistent stress, it can progress to dysplasia |
| define dysplasia | the disordered cellular growth and can result in cells that vary in size, shape, and organization. |
| is dysplasia reversable | in theory, it is. with alleviation of inciting stress |
| what can dysplasia lead to | it can to progress to carcinoma (which is irreversible) |
| 5 categories in which cells can be damaged | 1 - physical injury 2 - radiation 3 - chemical 4 - biological agents 5 - nutritional imbalances |
| give examples of how cells can be damaged by physical agents | - mechanical forces (fractures) - extreme temperatures (burns) - electrical forces |
| give examples of how cells can be damaged by radiation injuries | - ionizing (cancer treatment) - UV (sunburn) - nonionizing (thermal burns) radiation |
| give examples of how cells can be damaged by chemical injury | - drugs (alcohol, Rx/OTC drugs, street drugs) - carbon tetrachloride - lead toxicity - mercury toxicity |
| give examples of how cells can be damaged by biological agents | - viruses - parasites - bacteria |
| give examples of how cells can be damaged by nutritional imbalances | - excess - deficiency |
| what is apoptosis | programmed cell death |
| what is necrosis | cell death in the organ/tissue of a person that is still living |
| how is the electrical potential measured | Volts (V) |
| what is potential difference | the difference between the separate charges |
| how is potential difference measured | miliVolts (mV) |
| two types of classification for epithelial tissues | 1 - cell shape 2 - number of layers |
| name the types of epithelial cells by cell shape | - squamous - cuboidal - columnar |
| name the types of epithelial tissue by number of layers | - simple - stratified - pseudostratified |
| tissue is mostly an extracellular matrix that supports tissue and holds it together | connective tissue |
| types of connective tissue | - connective tissue proper - specialized connective tissue |
| types of specialized connective tissue | - bone - blood cells |
| types of connective tissue proper | - loose (areolar) - adipose - reticular - dense connective tissue |
| types of muscle tissue | - smooth - skeletal - cardiac |
| two types of fibers in muscle tissue | - thick (myosin) - thin (actin) |
| types of neural cells | - glial cells (support, glue) - nerve cells (communication) |
| these hold cells together and can form an extracellular matix | cell junctions |
| three types of cell junctions | - tight junctions - adhering junctions - gap junctions |
| describe tight junctions | - epithelial tissue - keeps fluid from entering spaces |
| describe adhering juctions | - prevents cell separation - strong adhesion |
| describe gap junctions | - forms channels in cytoplasm of each cell |
| three ways cells/tissues adapt | 1) change is cell size 2) change in number of cells 3) change is cell type and forms |
| examples of how cells change in size | - atrophy - hypertrophy |
| examples of how cells change in number | - hyperplasia |
| examples of how cells change in type/form | - metaplasia - dysplasia |
| describe atrophy | - decrease in tissue size ----- from decrease in living cells ----- from disuse/oxygen depravation ----- aging ----- diminished endocrine function - decrease in cell size AND cell shape |
| examples of hyperplasia can includes | - glandular proliferation in breasts during pregnancy - glandular proliferation in uterus during luteal phase of ovarian cycle |
| Barrett's esophagus is a result of (meta/dys)plasia | Barrett's esophagus is a result of METAplasia |
| dysplasia is a result of | - long standing pathologic hyperplasia/metaplasia secondary to chronic inflammation |
| give the reason women get pap smears | - cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) - dysplasia of cells in the cervix |
| types of injury | - free radical formation - hypoxia - disruption of intracellular calcium homeostasis |
| what is free radical formation | - highly reactive atoms with unpaired electrons in outer orbit |
| what is reactive oxygen species (ROS) | - oxygen-containing molecules - incudes free radicals and nonradicals |
| what is oxidative stress | - when ROS (reactive oxygen species) exceeds the body's ability to neutralize them |
| what types of diseases are a result of oxidative stress | - ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) - certain Cancers - age-related functional declines |
| what are antioxidents | - substances that inhibit reactions of reactive oxygen species |
| name some natural antioxiidents | - Vitamin A, C, E - catalase proteins - selenium (other nonmetal elements) - zinc (metals) |
| what is a hypoxic injury | - cell damage/death due to low oxygen delivery to tissues - leads to impaired metabolism and decreased ATP production ----- leads to cellular injury because certain processes cannot be carried out |
| what can cause hypoxic cell injury | - anemia - ischemia (obstruction in artery) - Carbon Monoxide poisoning - poor oxygenation (lung disease) - decreased blood perfusion (heart failure/stroke) |
| decrease in oxygen levels in brain cells for ________________________ (length of time) can lead to irreversible damage | 4-6 minutes |
| hypoxia can lead to decrease in cell production of ATP. why is this important? what happens (signs/symptoms) when this occurs? | (why) failure of the ATP-dependent sodium/potassium pump (signs/symptoms) increased sodium inside the cell, and increased swelling |
| what is the main function of calcium in the cells | it acts as a second messenger for many reactions |
| in normal conditions, describe the cellular calcium ion levels | intracellular calcium levels are lower than extracellular levels |
| what happens when intracellular calcium levels are high | - activates enzymes and leads to damaging effects |
| what is coagulative necrosis | -sudden cut off of blood (ischemia) |
| what is liquefactive necrosis | - come cells die but catalytic enzymes are not destroyed ----- includes: infarct and abscesses |
| what is caseous necrosis | - granulomatous inflammation (usually seen with TB) |
| three types of necrosis | - coagulative - liquefactive - caseous |
| two types of gangrenous necrosis | - wet - dry |
| describe dry gangrene | - tissue is dehydrated - tissue shrinks/shrivels - turns black and brown - the spread is slow |
| describe wet gangrene | - cold, swollen, pulseless - skin moist/black/distended - blebs form (small blisters) - liquefaction occurs - foul odor from infestation of bacteria - spread is rapid |
Created by:
kandriot
Popular Pathology sets