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Polls 1100: Ch. 7-10
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| factions | groups of citizens united by some common passion or interest and opposed to the rights of other citizens or to the interests of the whole community |
| political parties | groups that are bound by a common interest or interests and that seek to use the political system to attain their goals from inside the system by controlling government |
| electioneering | nominating and electing candidates to office |
| governing | activities directed toward controlling the distribution of political resources by providing executive and legislative leadership, enacting agendas, mobilizing support, and building coalitions |
| interest groups | groups, including corporations, that are bound by a common interest and that seek to use the political system to attain their policy goals from the outside, by persuading people in power to give them what they want |
| partisanship | one's allegiance to one's party |
| accountability | ensuring elected officials do what they say they are going to do |
| responsible party model | an ideal model of how parties might operate to maximize voter information and elected official accountability |
| party platform | a distinct set of policies set forth by a political party that is based on its ideology |
| partisan sorting | the process through which citizens align themselves ideologically with one of the two parties, leaving fewer citizens remaining in the center and increasing party polarization |
| hyperpartisanship | a commitment to party so strong that it can transcend other commitments, including that to the national interest |
| party machines | a system in which party leaders or "bosses" made decisions about policy and kept the loyalty of their voters by providing them with services and support |
| primaries | preliminary party elections |
| caucuses | party gatherings where candidate choice is debated openly |
| party identifiers | people who associate themselves with a particular party because they share its values, culture, policy preferences, or social network |
| party activists | the most ideologically extreme of a party's voters, also called the "base" |
| party organizations | the Democratic National Committee and the Republican National Committee, both of which are staffed with officials who are paid political operatives in charge of keeping the party infrastructure working |
| party-in-government | elected officials who are in charge of the key function of governing-filling key positions and making policy |
| single member, first past the post | a system of representation in which only one person is elected from each congressional district-the person who gets the most votes |
| political efficacy | citizens' feelings of effectiveness in political affairs |
| collective goods | benefits that, if the group is successful in obtaining them, can be enjoyed by everybody, whether they were members of the group and contributed to the effort or not |
| free rider problem | the social dilemma faced when people can receive a collective good without having to put in any individual resources to earn it |
| material benefits | group member benefits that involve items of real monetary worth, like insurance discounts or professional paybacks |
| solidary benefits | group member benefits derived from an individual's desire to associate with other people who care about the same things |
| expressive benefits | the opportunity to do work for something that matters deeply to you |
| selective incentives | benefits offered to induce people to join groups |
| economic interest groups | groups that seek to influence policy for the pocketbook issues of their members, that is, for what they do |
| equal opportunity interest groups | groups that seek to influence government on behalf of people who feel they are not represented on account of who they are |
| public interest groups | groups that try to change policy in accordance with values that they believe are good for everyone |
| government interest groups | groups hired by governments to lobby other governments |
| lobbying | efforts by groups to persuade government officials to do something |
| lobbyists | professionals who are hired to persuade government officials to do something |
| direct lobbying | lobbying that impacts public officials directly |
| indirect lobbying | a type of lobbying focused on getting the public to put pressure on elected officials |
| revolving door | when people move from the public sector to the private sector and then sometimes back to the public sector again |
| political action committees (PACs) | the fundraising arms of interest groups |
| iron triangles | close policymaking relationships among legislators, regulators, and the groups being regulated that tend to exclude the public |
| grassroots lobbying | indirect lobbying efforts that spring from widespread public concern |
| astroturf lobbying | indirect lobbying efforts that manipulate or create public sentiment, "astroturf" being artificial grassroots |
| public opinion | the collective attitudes and beliefs of individuals on one or more issues |
| polling | the use of scientific methods and technology to measure public opinion |
| polls | the instrument through which public opinion is measured, or the place where one goes to cast a formal vote |
| election | the formal process of voting candidates into office |
| rational ignorance | the state of not engaging in politics because the payoff seems remote or insignificant |
| online processing | the experience of picking up various decision-making cues throughout the day that help you arrive at a rational conclusion even though you might no be able to re-create the process of getting there |
| two-step flow of information | a psychological process by which opinion followers look to opinion leaders for cues on how to vote |
| opinion followers | the vast majority of citizens who take their cues about what to think from opinion leaders |
| opinion leaders | the subset of the population who are well informed about politics and involved in civic activity |
| random sample | samples chosen in such a way that any member of the population being polled has an equal change of being selected |
| sample bias | the effect of having a sample that does not represent all segments of the population |
| nonresponse bias | a skewing of data that occurs when there is a difference in opinion between those who choose to participate and those who do not |
| weighting | adjustments to surveys during analysis so that selected demographic groups reflect their values in the population, usually as measured by the census |
| sampling error | a number that indicates within what range the results of a poll are accurate |
| likely voter polls | polls of respondents who pollsters have determined are likely to vote by asking questions about prior voting behavior |
| likely voter screens | the question that different pollsters use to decide how likely they think a respondent is to vote |
| polling aggregators | analysts who combine polls by averaging or other techniques in order to minimize sampling error and make the polls more accurate |
| house effects | the way a particular pollster's results tend to favor Democrats or Republicans |
| random digit dialing | the process of choosing respondents for a poll by letting a computer pick phone numbers without bias |
| tracking polls | polls that keep track of data over time to detect changes in support for people or issues |
| exit polls | polls that are taken as people leave their polling places immediately after voting |
| fake polls | polls that are conducted to sway or manipulate public opinion, not to measure it |
| political socialization | the process of picking up values and commitments to a regime through various social agents like family, schools, religious institutions, peer groups, and the media |
| patriotism | shared loyalty to our country and its institutions |
| party indentification | the tendency of members of the public to associate themselves with a particular party because they share its values, culture, policy preferences, or social networks |
| gender gap | the tendency of men and women to differ in their political views on some issues |
| single-issue voters | voters who make electoral choices based on a particular issue |
| voter turnout | the percentage of the eligible population who turn out to vote in an election |
| regulating the electorate | the practice of trying to limit the number of eligible voters by law or custom in order to maximize one's party's fortunes |
| electoral mandate | the perception that an election victory signals broad support for the winner's proposed policies |
| invisible primary | the period of time before primaries begin when candidates are sounding out support, testing the waters, and trying to decide whether to run |
| party primaries | elections in which candidates from each party are chosen to run in the general election |
| party caucuses | a local gathering of party members to choose convention delegates |
| front loading | the process of scheduling presidential primaries early in the primary season |
| front runner | the candidate who appears to be the likeliest to win the election at a given point in time |
| momentum | a sense of forward movement and enthusiasm that candidates can get from primary wins or other positive events |
| national nominating convention | a formal party gathering at which candidates for the general election are chosen |
| Electoral College | an intermediary body that elects the president |
| swing voters | the approximately one third of the electorate who are undecided at the start of a campaign |
| swing states | states in which the outcome of a general election is not easy to predict in advance |
| wedge issues | a controversial issue that one party uses to split the voters in the other party |
| negative advertising | campaign advertising that emphasizes the negative characteristics of opponents rather than one's own strengths |
| hard money | campaign funds donated directly to candidates; amounts are limited by federal election laws |
| soft money | unregulated campaign contributions by individuals, groups, or parties that promote general election activities but do not directly support individual candidates |
| issue advocacy ads | advertisements paid for by soft money, and thus not regulated, that promote certain issue positions but do not endorse specific candidates |
| dark money | campaign money that goes to nonprofits (including political groups like unions and trade groups) that can be spent to influence elections and whose donors do not need to be revealed |
| voter mobilization | a party's efforts to inform potential voters about issues and candidates and to persuade them to vote |
| get-out-the-vote (GOTV) | efforts by political parties, interest groups, and the candidate's staff to maximize voter turnout among supporters |
| media | channels of communication |
| media aggregators | web sites, applications, and software that cull content from other digital sources |
| reporting | the action of seeking out facts to tell a complete story about a public event or individual |
| journalists | professional communicators who focus on news sharing and narrative building |
| media convergence | the merging of traditional media with digital communication technologies such as telecommunications and the Internet |
| mediated citizens | people who are constantly receiving information through multiple channels that can and do shape their political views but who also have the ability to use those channels to create their own narrative |
| information bubble | a closed cycle in which all the information we get reinforces the information we already have, solidifying our beliefs without reference to outside reality checks |
| gatekeepers | journalists and media elite who determine which news stories are covered and which are not |
| commercial bias | the tendency of the media to make coverage and programming decisions based on what will attract a large audience and maximize profits |
| infotainment | when the news is presented in a deliberately entertaining way in order to keep audiences interested |
| clickbait | sensational headlines designed to tempt Internet users to click through to a specific web site |
| net neutrality | the principle that Internet service providers cannot speed up or slow down access for customers or make decisions about the content they see or the apps they download |
| revolving door | when people move from the public sector to the private sector and then sometimes back to the public sector again |
| spin | an interpretation of a politician's words or actions, designed to present a favorable image |
| pundit | a professional observer and commentator on politics reporting |
| agenda setting | the process through which issues attain the status of being seriously debated by politically relevant actors |
| framing | the process through which the media emphasize particular aspects of a news story, thereby influencing the public's perception of the story |
| feeding frenzy | excessive press coverage of an embarrassing or scandalous subject |
| horse race journalism | the media's focus on the competitive aspects of politics rather than on actual policy proposals and political decisions |
| soundbites | a brief, snappy excerpt from a public figure's speech that is easy to repeat on the news |
| permanent campaign | the idea that governing requires a continual effort to convince the public to sign on to the program, requiring a reliance on consultants and an emphasis on politics over policy |
| news management | the efforts of a politician's staff to control news about the politician |
| leaks | confidential information secretly revealed to the press |
| trial balloon | an official leak of a proposal to determine public reaction to it without risk |
| policy | a prescribed course of action, a way of accomplishing a goal, or a set of operational principles |
| policymaking | the process of formulating policies |
| public policy | a government plan of action to solve a problem that people share collectively or that they cannot solve on their own |
| agenda setting | the process through which issues attain the status of being seriously debated by politically relevant actors |
| policy formulation | a phase of the policy making process in which policies are developed to address specific problems that have been placed on the national agenda |
| policy adoption | a phase of the policy making process in which polices are adopted by government bodies for future imlementation |
| policy implementation | a phase of the policy making process in which government executes an adopted policy as specified by legislation or policy action |
| policy evaluation | a phase of the policy making process in which policymakers attempt to assess the merit, worth, and utility of a policy |
| redistributive policies | policies that shift resources from more affluent segments of society to those who are less affluent and less likely to participate politically |
| distributive policies | policies funded by the whole taxpayer base that address the needs of particular groups |
| regulatory policies | policies designed to restrict or change the behavior of certain groups or individuals |
| social policy | distributive and redistributive policies that seek to improve the quality of citizens' lives |
| social welfare policies | government programs that provide for the needs of those who cannot, or sometimes will not, provide for themselves |
| means-tested programs | programs that require beneficiaries to prove that they lack the necessary income or resources (means) to provide for themselves, according to the government's definitions of eligibility |
| Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) | a New Deal-era policy designed to ensure that poor families could take care of their kids |
| Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) | a welfare program of block grants to states that encourage recipients to work in exchange for time-limited benefits |
| Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) | a federal program that provides vouchers to the poor to help them buy food |
| middle-class and corporate welfare | a set of distributive policies that benefit the middle class and corporations |
| subsidies | financial incentives given by the government to individuals, corporations, or other government jurisdictions or institutions usually to encourage certain activities or behaviors |
| social insurance policies | programs that offer benefits in exchange for contributions |
| Social Security | a social insurance program under which individuals make contributions during working years and collect benefits in retirement |
| entitlement program | a federal program that guarantees benefits to qualified recipients |
| health care policy | a country's decisions, plans, and actions designed to promote specific health care objectives |
| Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act | health care legislation passed during the Obama administration designed to make health care more affordable to more people |
| Medicare | the federal government's health insurance program for the elderly and disabled |
| Medicaid | a federally sponsored program that provides medical care to the poor |
| economic policy | all the different strategies that government officials employ to solve economic problems |
| fiscal policy | the government's power to tax and spend to stabilize the economy |
| surpluses | the extra funds available because government's revenues are greater than its expenditures |
| deficits | shortfalls in the budget due to the government's spending more in a year than it takes in |
| monetary policy | the government's power to control the money supply by manipulating interest rates |
| interest rates | the cost of borrowing money, calculated as a percentage of the money borrowed |
| Federal Reserve System | the independent commission that controls the money supply through a system of twelve federal banks |
| tax policy | the government's power to require that individuals and businesses contribute to collective costs |
| progressive income taxes | taxing people who have more money at a higher rate |
| regressive taxes | flat taxes, like sales taxes, that consume a higher percentage of a poorer person's money |
| value-added taxes (VATs) | taxes levied at each stage of production, based on the value added to the product at that stage |
| capital gains taxes | a tax levied on the return from capital investments |
| deregulation | the elimination of regulations in order to improve economic efficiency |
| foreign policy | a country's official positions, practices, and procedures for dealing with actors outside its borders |
| isolationism | a foreign policy view that nations should stay out of international political alliances and activities and focus on domestic matters |
| interventionism | a foreign policy view that, to keep the republic safe, the United States must be actively engaged in shaping the global environment and be willing to intervene to shape events |
| intergovernmental organizations | bodies, such as United Nations, whose members are countries |
| nongovernmental organizations | organizations comprising individuals or interest groups from around the world focused on a special issue |
| multinational corporations | large companies that do business in multiple countries |
| National Security Council (NSC) | the organization within the Executive Office of the President that provides foreign policy advice to the president |
| Department of State | the executive department charged with managing foreign affairs |
| Department of Defense | the executive department charged with managing the country's military personnel, equipment, and operations |
| Joint Chiefs of Staff | the senior military officers from four branches of the U.S. armed forces |
| intelligence community | the agencies and bureaus responsible for obtaining and interpreting information for the government |
| Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) | the government organization that oversees foreign intelligence gathering and related classified activities |
| director of national intelligence | the overseer and coordinator of the activities of the many agencies involved in the production and dissemination of intelligence information in the U.S. government, as well as the president's main intelligence advisor |
| War Powers Act | a federal law passed in 1973 that was designed to check the president's power to commit the United States to an armed conflict without the consent of the U.S. Congress |
| crisis policy | foreign policy, usually made quickly and secretly, that respond to an emergency threat |
| strategic policy | foreign policy that lays out a country's basic stance toward international actors or problems |
| structural defense policy | foreign policy dealing with defense spending, military bases, and weapons procurement |
| Cold War | the half-century of competition and conflict after World War II between the United States and the Soviet Union (and their allies) |
| containment | the U.S. Cold War policy of preventing the Soviet Union from expanding its influence, especially in Europe |
| Bush Doctrine | the foreign policy that supported preemptive attacks as a legitimate tactic in the U.S. war on state-sponsored terrorism |
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