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A&P2 Exam 2
Chapter 19
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| plasma | 55% of blood; liquid extracellular matrix of blood |
| formed elements | cells and cell fragments found suspended in plasma |
| 3 components of formed elements and their % | hematocrit-44% (RBCs); buffy coat-1% (WBCs and platelets-small cellular fragments) |
| 7 functions performed by blood | exchanging gas, distributing solutes, performing immune functions, maintaining body temp, blood clotting, acid-base homeostasis, blood pressure |
| 3 components of plasma and their % | water-90%, less water=greater viscosity; plasma proteins form a colloid-9%, albumin, immune proteins, transport proteins, clotting proteins; other solutes-1% |
| albumin | protein synthesized in liver; responsible for blood’s colloid osmotic pressure; draws water into blood by osmosis |
| immune proteins (y-globulins) | also known as antibodies; made by leukocytes, components of immune system |
| transport proteins | bind to lipid-based molecules to transport them in hydrophilic blood; α- and β-globulins and lipoproteins |
| clotting proteins | stop bleeding from injured blood vessels by forming a blood clot with assistance from platelets; fibrinogen and clotting factors |
| red blood cell | biconcave disc; increases surface area of cell; increases gas exchange; example of Structure-Function Core Principle Anucleate: lacks other cellular organelles -Cytosol has enzymes and 1 billion oxygen-binding hemoglobin (Hb) proteins |
| 5 Leukocytes (WBCs) most to least numerous | neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils |
| neutrophils (granulocyte) | cytoplasmic granules stains light lilac color; Active phagocytes that ingest and destroy bacterial cells by releasing granules; three to five lobes to nucleus |
| chemotaxis | Injured cells release chemicals that attract Neutrophils from bloods |
| eosinophils (granulocyte) | bilobed nucleus and cytoplasm appears red; Phagocytes that ingest foreign antigens; Granules contain enzymes and toxins that attack parasitic worms and release inflammatory chemicals in allergic reactions |
| basophils (granulocyte) | S-shaped nucleus and appear dark purple (blue); Chemicals in granules mediate inflammation |
| lymphocytes (agranulocyte) | contain large, spherical nuclei and a light blue rim of cytoplasm Activated by cellular markers found on all cells called antigens |
| B lymphocytes (B cells) | produce specific antibodies which bind to and remove specific antigens from tissue |
| T lymphocytes (T cells) | activate other immune system components and directly destroy abnormal body cells, such as cancer cells or virally infected cells |
| monocytes | largest leukocyte; large U-shaped or (kidney-shaped) nucleus surrounded by light blue rim of cytoplasm |
| macrophages | phagocytic cells in tissues that ingest dead and dying cells, bacteria, antigens, and other cellular debris |
| platelet characteristics | cell fragments surrounded by a plasma membrane, no nucleus, few organelles |
| platelet components | several types of granules that contain clotting factors, enzymes, some mitochondria, and glycogen deposits that enable them to carry out oxidative catabolism, cytoskeletal elements, which include microtubules associated with actin and myosin filaments |
| platelet functions | a process that stops blood loss from an injured blood vessel; blood clotting |
| Cirrhosis | liver disease that is caused by alcoholism, viral hepatitis, and cancer; 10th leading cause of death men, 12th women; results in progressive dec. in prod. of plasma proteins; leads to dec. colloidal osmotic pres; results in fluid loss to extracellular sp |
| globin | large protein of four polypeptide subunits: two alpha chains and two beta chains; binds CO2 |
| heme | each polypeptide bound to iron containing compound; binds O2 |
| oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) | iron oxidized when it binds to oxygen in regions of high oxygen concentration (such as lungs) |
| deoxyemoglobin (HHb) | iron is reduced when releases oxygen into tissues where oxygen concentration is low |
| carbaminohemoglobin (CO2) | carbon dioxide binds to amino acids of globin where oxygen levels are low; accounts for 23% of CO2 transported in blood |
| carboxyhemoglobin (CO) | carbon monoxide binds more strongly to iron of heme than oxygen; changes Hb shape |
| life span of erythrocyte | 120 days (4-6 million/mm^3) |
| Erythropoiesis-hematopoietic stem cell | differentiates into progenitor cells called Erythrocyte colony- forming units (CFUs) |
| Erythropoiesis- erythrocyte CFU | differentiates into proerythroblasts stimulated by hormone erythropoietin (secreted by kidneys) |
| Erythropoiesis- proerythroblast | develop into Erythroblasts; from rough ER and ribosomes; synthesize Hb; nucleus shrinks as it matures and ejected |
| Erythropoiesis- erythroblast | eject remaining organelles, enter bloodstream through sinusoidal capillaries of bone marrow |
| Erythropoiesis- reticulocyte | remaining organelles are ejected; cell enters bloodstream |
| Erythropoiesis-erythrocyte | cell is now mature |
| universal donor | O- |
| universal recipient | AB+ |
| erythropoiesis regulation feedback loop: stimulus | blood levels of oxygen fall below normal |
| erythropoiesis regulation feedback loop: receptor | kidney cells detect falling oxyen levels |
| erythropoiesis regulation feedback loop: control center | kidneys produce more erythropoietin and release hormone into bloodstream |
| erythropoiesis regulation feedback loop: effector/response | production of erythrocytes increases by stimulation |
| erythropoiesis regulation feedback loop: homeostasis | blood levels of oxygen rise to normal |
| anemia | decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, symptoms: pallor (pale skin), fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, tachycardia, increased reticulocyte count |
| iron-deficiency anemia | decreased hemoglobin; (most common),caused by inadequate dietary iron intake, reduced intestinal absorption of iron, or slow blood loss |
| anemia of chronic disease | decreased hemoglobin; interferes with iron transportation from liver to red bone marrow; Vitamin B6 deficiency, malnutrition, poisoning with certain drugs or heavy metals, like lead, and pregnancy can all decrease hemoglobin levels |
| pernicious anemia | decreased hematocrit; results from vitamin B12 deficiency, interferes with DNA synthesis of rapidly dividing cells, including hematopoietic cells in bone marrow |
| hemolytic anemia | decreased hematocrit; erythrocyte destruction caused by bacterial infections, diseases of immune system or liver |
| aplastic anemia | decreased hematocrit; stop production of erythrocytes in red bone marrow |
| abnormal hemoglobin causes | most common=sickle-cell disease sickle-cell trait: single copy of defective gene Sickle-cell disease: two defective copies of gene produce abnormal hemoglobin called hemoglobin S (HbS) |
| leukocyte formation: luekopoiesis | the process in the red bone marrow that begin with hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) for all 5 kinds |
| myeloid cell line | produces most formed elements, including erythrocytes and platelets |
| lymphoid cell line | produces lymphoblast, committed to becoming B and T lymphocytes, which then develop into prolymphocyte precursor cells |
| leukemia | cancers of blood cells or bone marrow; classified based of speed of disease progression and from cell line |
| acute luekemia | rapid increase in immature, nonfunctional, or poorly functional blood cells; children |
| chronic leukemia | slow accumulation of abnormal mature leukocytes; adults |
| lymphocytic luekemia | from lymphoid cell line; generally abnormal B lyphocytes |
| myelogenous luekemia | from myeloid cell line; can involve any of myeloid cells |
| platelet formation | thrombopoiesis |
| explain how platelets are formed from mature megakaryocytes | Stimulated by hormone thrombopoietin produced in liver; send cytoplasmic extensions through clefts in bone marrow sinusoids into bloodstream; break off into thousands of platelets |
| life span of platelets | about 9 years before they are removed from circulation by liver and spleen |
| homeostasis of blood clot: part 1- vascular spasm | 1. Blood vessel is injured 2. blood leaks into extracellular fluid with following two responses 3. vasoconstriction and increased tissue pressure both act to decrease blood vessel diameter |
| homeostasis of blood clot: part 2- platelet plug formation | forms patch, consisting mostly platelets, that adheres only to the injury site, further reducing blood loss: 1.Injured endothelial cells release von Willebrand factor (vWF) 2.Exposed collagen + vWF triggers platelet activation 3.Platelet aggregation |
| homeostasis of blood clot: part 3-coagulation | is the process that forms the molecular glue that binds platelets, endothelial cells, and other formed elements together: 1. Fibrin is the threadlike protein that converts a soft, liquid platelet plug into a more substantial solid mass. |
| homeostasis of blood clot: part 4-clot retraction | Actin and myosin fibers in platelets contract; brings edges of wounded vessel closer together |
| homeostasis of blood clot: part 5-thrombolysis | a. endothelial cells release tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) b. tPA activates plasminogen c. plasmin degrades fibrin, and the clot dissolves |
| coagulation cascade | Fibrin is found circulating in plasma and in platelets in an inactive form called fibrinogen which is converted into fibrin by a series of reactions that occur at the surface of platelets and/or damaged endothelial cells |
| intrinsic pathway | involves exposed collagen fibers and clotting factors found in the blood: a. exposed collagen fibers activate factor XII b. Factors XI and IX become activated c. Factors IXa and VIIIa and Ca2+ form an enzyme complex that activates factor X |
| extrinsic pathway | is initiated by a factor outside the blood called tissue factor: a. Subendothelial cells display tissue factor b. tissue factor activates VII c. factor VIIa, tissue factor, and Ca2+ form an enzyme complex |
| common pathway | both the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways lead to formation of activated factor X: a. Factor Xa and Va and Ca2+ form prothrombin activator, converting prothrombin into thrombin b. Thrombin turns fibrinogen into fibrin, which glues plug together |
| serum | fluid consisting of plasma without clotting proteins; forced out of clot during clot retraction |
| regulation of clotting | positive feedback mechanism. Produce anticoagulants that inhibit coagulation |
| antithrombin III (AT-III) | plasma protein made by the liver; binds and inhibits thrombin and factor Xa, activity enhanced by heparin and heparin sulfate |
| heparin sulfate | polysaccharide in the extracellular fluid produced by many different cell types; enhances activity of antithrombin-III |
| protein C | plasma protein produced by the liver, synthesis requires vitamin K; degrades factors Va and VIIIa |
| disorders of clotting-bleeding disorders | hemophilia A- factor VIII deficiency hemophilia B- factor IX deficiency |
| thrombosis | formation of an inappropriate clot |
| thrombus | clot; obstruct blood flow through blood |
| thromboembolism | break off of a thrombus and travel to distinct site |
| deep vein thrombosis | form in deep veins of legs |
| pulmonary embolism | a dangerous complication of DVTs; emboli break off thrombi in legs and lodge in small blood vessles in lungs |
| anticoagulants; heparin; warfarin | widely used group of medications; manage and prevent emboli; include: a. action is nearly immediate but must be injected b. given by mouth; inhibits production of Vit. K- dependent clotting factors by liver |
| antiplatelet drugs; aspirin; clopidogrel | a. inhibits platelet aggregation b. blocks platelet receptors and inhibits platelet activation |
| thrombolytic agents (tPA) | used when thrombi or emboli have caused stroke or heart attack to restore blood flow |
| blood transfusions | antigens on erythrocytes of blood groups determined by carbohydrate chains. Two groups are useful for clinical use: (1) the ABO blood group, and (2) the Rh blood group |
| tranfusion reaction | recipient antibodies bind to donor antigens; causes agglutination that destroys donor erythrocytes, possibly leading to kidney failure and death |
| blood typing | ABO blood group features two antigens, the A and B antigens, gives rise to four ABO types |
| 4 blood types | Type A, A antigen is present on erythrocytes. Type B, B antigen is on erythrocytes. Type AB, A and B antigens are on erythrocytes. Type O, neither A or B antigens are on erythrocytes. No O antigen; O denotes the absence of A and B antigens only. |
| Rh blood group; Rh antigen; positive; negative | features the ________ first discovered in rhesus monkeys. Individuals with Rh on their erythrocytes are Rh _________ and those without the Rh antigen are Rh ___________. |
| 8; O+; AB- | 3. The ABO and Rh blood groups combined give rise to the __common blood types. Type __ is the most common blood type in the U.S. populations while __ is the least. |
| antibodies, agglutinins | a. When ________, sometimes called _________, bind to surface-bound antigens they cause them to clump together or agglutinate. |
| hemolysis | b. Ultimately, agglutination promotes erythrocyte destruction, a reaction called ___________. |
| major crossmatch | donor's RBCs and recipient's serum |
| minor crossmatch | donor's serum and recipient's RBCs |
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