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Chapter 1
Biol 2113 Giesecke
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anatomy | study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. Concrete; can be seen, felt, and examined closely. |
| Physiology | study of the function of the body; how body parts work to carry out activities. |
| Reference Man | healthy young (22-year-old) male weighing 155 lb |
| Reference Woman | healthy young (22-year-old) woman weighing 125 lb |
| Subdivisions of Anatomy | gross, microscopic, developmental |
| Gross Anatomy | study of large body structures visible to naked eye. Example: heart, lungs, and kidneys; also called macroscopic |
| Three approaches of Gross Anatomy | Regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, surface anatomy |
| Regional Anatomy | Study of structure by region. All structures (muscle, bones, blood vessels, nerves, etc.) in a particular region of the body are examined at same time; approach of gross anatomy |
| Systemic Anatomy | study of structure by system. Example: cardiovascular system study would include examination of heart and the blood vessels of entire body; approach of gross anatomy |
| Surface Anatomy | study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface, example locate appropriate blood vessel in which to feel pulses or draw blood; approach of gross anatomy |
| Microscopic Anatomy | study of structures too small to be seen with naked eye; uses exceedingly thin slices of body tissue which are stained and mounted for viewing under microscope. |
| Cytology | study of cells |
| Histology | study of tissues |
| Developmental Anatomy | studies changes that occur in the body throughout life span. |
| Embryology | study of developmental changes that occur before birth |
| Renal Physiology | study of kidney function |
| Neurophysiology | study of nervous system function |
| Cardiovascular Physiology | study of heart and blood vessels function |
| Complementarity of Structure and Function | function always reflects structure; physiology is only explainable in terms of the underlying anatomy. |
| Unit of Life | Cell |
| Correct Ordering of Structural Hierarchy | chemical; cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal |
| Chemical Level | atoms combine to form molecules; molecules associate in specific ways to form organelles |
| Cellular Level | smallest units of living things; have common functions but individuals vary widely in size and shape reflecting their unique functions in the body. |
| Tissue | groups of similar cells that have a common function |
| Basic Tissue Types | epithelium, muscle, connective, nervous |
| Epithelium Tissue | tissue that covers the body surface and lines its cavities |
| Muscle Tissue | tissue that provides movement |
| Connective Tissue | tissue that supports and protects body organs |
| Nervous Tissue | tissue that provides means of rapid internal communication by transmitting electrical impulses |
| Organ Level | discrete structure composed of at least two tissue types (four is common) that performs a specific function for the body. |
| Organ System | organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose. Example: heart + blood vessels = cardiovascular system |
| Organismal Level | highest level of organization is the organism (human being). Sum total of all structural levels. |
| Necessary Life Functions | maintaining boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, growth |
| Maintain Boundaries | internal environment remains distinct from the external environment surrounding it |
| Movement | from one place to another |
| Responsiveness | ability to sense changes in environment and then respond to them. |
| The System Most Involved with Responsiveness | nervous system, because nerve cells are hightly excitable and communicate with each other via electrical impulses |
| Digestion | breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood. |
| Metabolism | all chemical reactions that occur within body cells |
| Catabolism | breaking down substances into their simpler building blocks |
| Anabolism | synthesizing more complex cellular structures from simpler substances |
| Cellular Respiration | using nutrients and oxygen to produce ATP |
| Three Systems Metabolism Depends On | digestive and respiratory systems to make nutrients and oxygen available to the blood; cardiovascular system to distribute them throughout body |
| Regulates Metabolism | mostly by hormones secreted by endocrine system glands |
| Excretion | process of removing wates from the body |
| Three Systems Involved in Excretion | digestive system rids body of solid wastes, feces; urinary system rids body of nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes, urea in urine; respiratory system rids body of carbon dioxide, a by-product of cellular respiration |
| Cellular Reproduction | original cell divides, producing two identical daughter cells that my then be used for body growth or repair. |
| Organismal Reproduction | major task of the reproductive system which is directly responsible for producing offspring, a function exquisitely regulated by hormones of the endocrine system. |
| Growth | increase in size of a body part or the organism as a whole. Usually accomplished by increasing the number of cells. Constructive activities occur at a faster rate than destructive ones. |
| Integumentary System function | forms external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure) receptors and sweat and oil glands. |
| Integumentary System anatomy | hair, skin, nails |
| Skeletal System function | protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals. |
| Skeletal System anatomy | Bones, joints |
| Muscular System function | allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture and produces heat |
| Muscular System anatomy | skeletal muscles |
| Nervous System function | as the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands |
| Nervous System anatomy | brain, spinal cord, nerves |
| Endocrine System function | glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction and nutrient use (metabolism) by cells |
| Endocrine System anatomy | pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovary, testis |
| Cardiovascular System function | blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste, etc. The heart pumps the blood |
| Cardiovascular System anatomy | heart, blood vessels |
| Lymphatic System function | Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body |
| Lymphatic System anatomy | Red bone marrow, Thymus, lymphatic vessels, throracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes |
| Respiratory System function | keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs. |
| Respiratory System anatomy | nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lung, bronchus |
| Digestive System function | breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to cells. indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces |
| Digestive System anatomy | oral cavity, esophagus, liver, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, rectum, anus |
| Urinary System function | eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood. |
| Urinary System anatomy | kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra |
| Male Reproduction System function | with female reproductive system, to produce offspring. testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. |
| Male Reproductive System anatomy | prostrate gland, penis, testis, scrotum, ductus deferens |
| Female Reproductive System function | with male reproductive system, to produce offspring. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish new born. |
| Female Reproductive System anatomy | mammary glands, ovary, uterus, uterine tube, vagina |
| Five Survival Needs | nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, appropriate atmospheric pressure |
| Nutrients | taken via the diet contain the chemical substances used for energy and cell building |
| Carbohydrates | major energy fuel for cells |
| Proteins | essential for building cell structures |
| Fats | provide a reserve of energy-rich fuel, also for building cell structures |
| Minerals and Vitamins | required for the chemical reactions in cells and for oxygen transport in blood. |
| Calcium | helps to make bones hard and required for blood clotting |
| Oxygen | required because chemical reactions that release energy from foods are oxidative |
| Water | accounts for 60-80% of body weight; single most abundant chemical in body; provides necessary environment for chemical reactions and fluid base for body secretions and excretions |
| Normal Body Temperature | 37C or 98.6F |
| Atmospheric Pressure | force air exerts on the surface of body; breathing and gas exchange functions depend of appropriate level. |
| Homeostasis | dynamic state of equilibrium or balance, in which internal conditions vary, but are always within relatively narrow limits, even though the outside world changes continuously. |
| Homeostatic Imbalance | body's control systems become less efficient and internal environment becomes less and less stable. Increase risk for illness and produce the changes associated with aging; disease is result. |
| Two Systems Responsible for Homeostasis | nervous and endocrine systems are communication centers using neural electrical impulses or blood borne hormones as information carriers. |
| Variable | the event being regulated |
| Receptor | sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes by sending information (input) to another part of control mechanism |
| Control center | Input flows from another point in control mechanism. Determines the point variable must be maintained. Analyzes the input received and determine appropriate response Information (output) is sent to another component of the control mechanism. |
| Effector | provides means for another component's response as part of the control mechanism to the stimulus. |
| Afferent Pathway | from receptor to control center |
| Efferent Pathway | from control center to effector |
| Negative Feedback Mechanism | Output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity. These mechanisms cause the variable to change in direction opposite to that of the initial change, returning it to its ideal value |
| Examples of Negative Feedback | Regulation of body temperature, Withdrawal reflex from pain, control of blood sugar., regulate heart rate, blood pressure, the rate and depth of breathing, blood levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide and minerals. |
| Positive Feedback Mechanism | the result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated.The change that results proceeds in the same direction as the initial change, causing the variable to deviate further and further from its original value or range. |
| Examples of Positive Feedback | Uterine contractions during childbirth; blood clotting |
| Anatomical Position | body is erect with feet slightly apart, palms facing forward with thumbs pointing away from body. Right and left refer to those sides of person/cadaver being viewed. |
| Superior / Cranial | toward the head end or upper part of the structure or the body; above |
| Inferior / Caudal | away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below |
| Ventral / Anterior | toward or at the front of the body; in front of |
| Dorsal / Posterior | toward or at the back of the body; behind |
| Medial | Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of |
| Lateral | away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of |
| Intermediate | between a more medial and a more lateral structure |
| Proximal | closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk |
| Distal | farther from the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk |
| Superficial | toward or at the body surface |
| Deep | away from the body surface; more internal |
| Axial | includes head, neck and trunk |
| Appendicular | includes limbs which are attached to body |
| Cephalic Region | HEAD: frontal; orbital; nasal; oral; mental; otic; occipital (back of head) |
| Cervical Region | NECK |
| Thoracic Region | CHEST: sternal; axillary; mammary |
| Abdominal Region | ABDOMEN: umbilical |
| Pelvic Region | inguinal (groin) |
| Pubic Region | gentital |
| Upper Limb Region | ENTIRE ARM: Acromial, brachial (arm); antecubital; olecranal; antebrachial (forearm); carpal (wrist) |
| Manus Region | HAND: pollex; metacarpal; palmar; digital |
| Lower Limb Region | ENTIRE LEG: coxal (hip); femoral (thigh); patellar, cural (leg); sural (calf); fibular or peroneal |
| Pedal Region | FOOT: tarsal (ankle); calcaneal; metatarsal; degital; plantar; Hallux |
| Back Region | DORSAL: scapular, vertebral, lumbar, sacral, gluteal, perineal (between anus and external genitalia) |
| Section | a cut named for the plane along which it is cut |
| Plane | is a flat surface named for direction relative to body. Sagittal, frontal and transverse planes lie at right angles to one another |
| Sagittal Plane | vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts |
| Midsagittal Plane / Medial Plane | Sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline |
| Parasagittal Plane | Any sagittal plane that is offset from midline |
| Frontal Plane / Coronal Plane | vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts |
| Transverse Plane | horizontal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts |
| Transverse Section | Cross Section |
| Oblique Sections | cuts made diagonally between horizontal or vertical planes; seldom used |
| MRI | Magnetic resonance imaging |
| Dorsal Cavity | cranial cavity (brain) and spinal cavity (spinal cord) |
| Ventral Cavity | Thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity |
| Viscera | collectively, organs |
| Thoracic cavity | surrounded by ribs and muscles of the chest. Includes pleural cavities; mediastinum and pericardial cavity. |
| Diaphragm | separates thoracic cavity from abdominopelvic cavity |
| Pleural cavities | each envelope a lung |
| Mediastinum | contains pericardial cavity and surrounds thoracic organs (esophagus, trachea and others) |
| Pericardial cavity | encloses heart |
| Abdominal cavity | contains stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and others |
| Pelvic Cavity | lies in bony pelvis and contains urinary bladder, some reproductive organs and the rectum; bowl shaped pelvis tips wasy from the perpendicular abdominal cavity. |
| Serous Membrane | a thin, double layered membrane |
| Parietal Serosa | the part of the double membrane lining the cavity walls |
| Visceral Serosa | the part of the double membrane lining the organs in the cavity |
| Serous Fluid | separates the perietal and viseral membranes; is secreted by both membranes; allows organs to slide without friction across the cavity walls and one another as they carry out routine functions |
| Quadrants of Abdominopelvic | transverse and median plane pass thru the umbilicus at right angles. Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ); Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ); Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ); Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) |
| Nine Regions of Abdominopelvic | Uses two transverse and two parasagittal planses. Left hypochondriac; epigastric; right hypochondriac; left lumbar; umbilical region; right lumbar; left illiac; hypogastric; right illiac |
| Oral and Digestive Cavities | Commonly called the mouth; contains teeth and tongue. This cavity is part of and continuous with the other cavity named which opens to the body exterior at the anus |
| Nasal Cavity | located within and posterior to the nose; this cavity is part of the repiratory system passageways |
| Orbital Cavity | located in the skull and house the eyes and present them in an anterior position |
| Middle Ear Cavity | located in the skull and lies just medial to the eardrums. contain tiney bones that transmit sound vibrations to the hearing receptors i the inner ears |
| Synovial Cavities | joint cavities; enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround freely movable joins. Membranes lining these cavities secrete a lubricating fluid that reduces friction as the bones move across one another. |
| Left Hypochonriac Region | contains diaphragm; spleen |
| Epigastric Region | contains stomach |
| Right Hypochondriac Region | contains liver; gall bladdar |
| Left Lumbar Region | contains descending colon of large intestines |
| Umbilical Region | contains transverse colon of large intestine; small intestine |
| Right Lumbar Region | Ascending colon of large intestine |
| Left Illiac Region | Initial part of sigmoid colon |
| Hypogastric Region | Urinary bladdar |
| Right Iliac Region | Cecum; appendix |
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