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A&P Chapters 6-8
Content from Weeks 6-7 Lecture
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Skeletal system | composed of the bones of the skeleton, plus cartilages, ligaments, and connective tissues |
| Functions of the skeletal system | support, storage of minerals and lipids, blood cell production, protection, leverage |
| Ways bones are classified | shape, internal tissue organization, bone markings |
| Shapes of bones | long, flat, sutural, irregular, short, sesamoid |
| Long bones | long and thin; found in arms, legs, hands, feet, fingers, and toes |
| Flat bones | thin with parallel surfaces; found in skull, sternum, ribs, scapulae |
| Sutural bones | small, irregular bones found between the flat bones of the skull |
| Irregular bones | have complex shapes; examples include the spinal vertebrae and pelvic bones |
| Short bones | small and thick; examples include wrist and ankle bones |
| Sesamoid bones | small and flat; develop inside tendons near joints of knees, hands, and feet |
| Types of bone markings | depressions/grooves, projections, tunnels |
| Depressions/grooves in bone | appear along bone surface |
| Projections in bone | tend to occur where tendons and ligaments attach, and at articulations with other bones |
| Tunnels in bone | where blood vessels and nerves enter the bone |
| Process | any projection or bump |
| Ramus | an extension of a bone making an angle with the rest of the structure |
| Trochanter | a large, rough projection |
| Tuberosity | a smaller, rough projection |
| Tubercle | a small, rounded projection |
| Crest | a prominent ridge |
| Line | a low ridge |
| Spine | a pointed or narrow process |
| Head | the expanded articular surface of an epiphysis, separated from the shaft by a neck |
| Neck | a narrow connection between the epiphysis and diaphysis |
| Condyle | a smooth, rounded articular process |
| Fossa | a shallow depression |
| Sulcus | a narrow groove |
| Foramen | a rounded passageway for blood vessels or nerves |
| Canal | a duct or channel |
| Meatus | a passageway through a bone |
| Fissure | an elongated cleft or slit |
| Sinus | a chamber within a bone, normally filled with air |
| Three parts of a long bone | epiphysis, diaphysis, metaphysis |
| Diaphysis | shaft of a long bone; has a central space surrounded by a heavy wall of bone |
| Medullary cavity | the space in the middle of the diaphysis of a long bone that carries the marrow |
| Epiphysis | the wide part at each end of a long bone; articulates with other bones; composed of mostly spongy bone covered with compact bone |
| Metaphysis | where the diaphysis and epiphysis meet |
| Cancellous | another word for spongy bone |
| Cortex | compact bone that covers spongy bone |
| Structure of a flat bone | a sandwich of spongy bone between two layers of compact bone |
| Diploe | the layer of spongy bone in the center of cranial bones |
| Bone tissue | dense, supportive connective tissue that contains specialized cells and produces a solid matrix of calcium salt deposits around collagen fibers |
| Characteristics of bone tissue | matrix containing osteocytes in lacunae, canaliculi, and a covering periosteum |
| Matrix | dense deposit of calcium salts in bone |
| Osteocytes | bone cells |
| Lacuna | a space in the osteon where an osteocyte lives |
| Canaliculi | small canals in compact bone that form pathways for blood vessels, and exchange nutrients and wastes |
| Periosteum | connective tissue membrane that covers the outer surface of the bone; consists of an outer fibrous and inner cellular layer; covers all bones except parts enclosed in joint capsules; contains perforating fibers, lymphatic vessels, sensory nerves |
| Matrix minerals | calcium phosphate, calcium hydroxide, hydroxyapatite |
| Calcium phosphate | Ca3(PO4)2; makes up two-thirds of bone matrix |
| Calcium hydroxide | Ca(OH)2; reactant in creating hydroxyapatite |
| Hydroxyapatite | Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2; incorporates other calcium salts and ions |
| Matrix proteins | collagen fibers that make up one-third of bone matrix |
| Four types of bone cells | osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoprogenitor cells, osteoclasts |
| Types of lamellae | concentric, circumferential, interstitial |
| Characteristics of osteocytes | make up just 2% of bone mass; mature bone cells; live in lacunae, between lamellae of matrix; connect by cytoplasmic extensions through canaliculi; do not divide |
| Functions of osteocytes | maintain protein and mineral content of matrix, and help repair damaged bone |
| Osteoblast | an immature bone cell |
| Characteristics of osteoblasts | perform osteogenesis, producing osteoid; once surrounded by calcified bone, become osteocytes |
| Osteogenesis | secretion of bone matrix compounds |
| Osteoid | matrix that has been produced by osteoblasts, but not yet calcified to form bone |
| Osteoprogenitor cell | mesenchymal bone cell |
| Characteristics of osteoprogenitor cells | located in the endosteum; form osteoblasts by division; assist in fracture repair |
| Osteoclast | bone cell that breaks down matrix |
| Characteristics of osteoclasts | giant, multinucleate cells with ruffled edges that secrete acids and protein-digesting enzymes; perform osteolysis; derived from the same stem cells that produce macrophages; originate in the bone marrow cavity |
| Homeostasis of osseous tissue | balance of bone building by osteoblasts and bone recycling by osteoclasts; if balance leans more toward osteolysis, bones become weak; weight-bearing exercise stimulates increased activity by osteoblasts |
| Structure of compact bone | made up of many osteons, wrapped and held together by circumferential lamellae; covered by the periosteum |
| Wormian bones | another word for sutural bones |
| Concentric lamellae | layers of bone matrix surrounding the central canal, which contain osteocytes |
| Circumferential lamellae | layers of bone matrix which wrap around the entire long bone, binding osteons together |
| Os coxa | one of two hip bones that make up the pelvis |
| Three bones that form the fetal os coxa | ilium, ischium, pubis |
| Innominal bone | another word for os coxa |
| Proximal epiphysis | the end of a long bone that is closer to the base of attachment |
| Distal epiphysis | the end of a long bone that is further from the base of attachment |
| Epiphyseal plate | one of two plates located in the transition zone of a long bone, which permits the bone to grow in length; becomes ossified at maturity |
| Growth/cartilage plate | epiphyseal plate |
| Osteon | the basic unit of compact bone; also called the Haversian system |
| Structure of osteons | composed of a central canal which carries nerves and blood vessels, surrounded by layers of concentric lamellae, which contains perforating canals, lacunae, and canaliculi |
| Perforating canals | canals that lie perpendicular to the central canal of each osteon, carrying blood vessels into the bone and marrow |
| -blast | a cell that is juvenile, or young |
| -clast | a cell that destroys, remodels, breaks down |
| Cycle of bone cell maturation | mesenchymal cell, osteoprogenitor cell, osteoblast, osteocyte |
| Structure of spongy bone | matrix contains trabeculae instead of osteons; trabeculae form an open network usually filled with red bone marrow |
| Lamella | layer of bone matrix |
| Interstitial lamellae | bone matrix that fills in the spaces between osteons |
| Red bone marrow | contains blood vessels, produces erythrocytes and supplies nutrients to osteocytes |
| Yellow bone marrow | found mostly in the center of long bones and in some short bones; stores fat |
| Volkmann's canals | another word for perforating canals |
| Nutrient foramina | holes in the diaphysis visible to the unaided eye, which carry large blood and lymphatic vessels into the matrix of the bone |
| Distribution of forces on the femur | tension on lateral side of shaft, compression on medial side |
| Perforating fibers | collagen fibers of the periosteum which connect with collagen fibers in bone and with fibers of joint capsules; attach tendons and ligaments |
| Functions of periosteum | isolates bone from surrounding tissues; provides a route for circulatory and nervous supply; participates in bone growth and repair |
| Endosteum | membrane that covers the inner surface of the bone |
| Characteristics of endosteum | incomplete cellular layer that lines the medullary cavity, covers trabeculae of spongy bone, lines central canals, and contains osteoblasts, osteoprogenitor cells, and osteoclasts; active in bone growth and repair |
| Osteogenesis | bone formation |
| Ossification | the process of replacing other tissues with bone |
| Two types of ossification | intramembranous, endochondral |
| Calcification | the process of depositing calcium salts, which occurs during bone ossification and in other tissues |
| Endochondral ossification | ossifies bones that begin as hyaline cartilage (most bones) |
| Six steps of endochondral ossification | chondrocyte enlargement, conversion of perichondrium to osteoblasts, vascularization, remodeling, development of secondary ossification centers, filling of epiphyses with spongy bone |
| Appositional growth | laying down circumferential lamellae that thickens and strengthens the long bones |
| Epiphyseal line | remnant of the epiphyseal plate in mature bones, visible on X-ray |
| Intramembranous ossification | occurs in the dermis; produces dermal bones, such as mandible and clavicle |
| Dermal ossification | another word for intramembranous ossification |
| Chondrocyte enlargement | chondrocytes near the center of the shaft enlarge; matrix is reduced to struts that begin to calcify; enlarged chondrocytes die, leaving large spaces within the matrix |
| Conversion of perichondrium to osteoblasts | blood vessels grow around the edge of the cartilage; perichondrial cells convert to osteoblasts; shaft of cartilage becomes sheathed in the periosteal bone collar |
| Vascularization | blood vessels penetrate the cartilage and invade central region; fibroblasts traveling with the blood vessels differentiate into osteoblasts at a primary ossification center and produce spongy bone; bone formation spreads along the shaft toward epiphyses |
| Primary ossification center | during endochondral ossification, the point in the developing diaphysis where fibroblasts gather, differentiate into osteoblasts, and begin laying down spongy bone |
| Remodeling | remodeling creates a medullary cavity in the center of the ossified cartilage; osseous tissue of the shaft thickens; cartilage near epiphyses replaced by shafts of bone; tissue increases in length/diameter |
| Development of secondary ossification centers | capillaries and osteoblasts migrate into the epiphyses and begin ossification |
| Filling of epiphyses with spongy bone | as the epiphyses ossify, layers of cartilage remain exposed to the joint cavities and at the metaphyses, forming epiphyseal cartilage |
| Epiphyseal cartilage | during endochondral ossification, the layer of cartilage left at the metaphysis toward the end of the process |
| Three steps of intramembranous ossification | aggregation of mesenchymal cells, spicule interconnection, creation of spongy bone and remodeling |
| Aggregation of mesenchymal cells during intramembranous ossification | mesenchymal cells aggregate at an ossification center and begin to secrete bone matrix; as the matrix calcifies, cells differentiate into osteoblasts; bone forms spicules that spread into surrounding tissue |
| Spicule | a small strut of bone growing outward from an ossification center |
| Spicule interconnection during intramembranous ossification | as spicules interconnect, they trap blood vessels within the bone |
| Creation of spongy bone and remodeling during intramembranous ossification | interconnected spicules mature into trabeculae; subsequent remodeling can create compact bone tissue; as growth slows, connective tissue around the bone organizes into periosteum, osteoblasts become less active and remain in the cellular periosteum |
| Three types of blood supply in mature bones | nutrient artery and vein, metaphyseal vessels, periosteal vessels |
| Nutrient artery and vein | single pair of large blood vessels that enter the diaphysis through the nutrient foramen; femur has more than one pair |
| Metaphyseal vessels | supply the epiphyseal cartilage, where bone growth occurs |
| Periosteal vessels | provide blood to superficial osteons and secondary ossification centers |
| Remodeling | the continual process by which the adult skeleton maintains itself; replaces mineral reserves, recycles and renews bone matrix, and involves osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts |
| Rate of osseous tissue turnover | affects bone strength; if deposition is greater than removal, bones get stronger, and if removal is greater than deposition, bones get weaker |
| Effect of exercise on bone | mineral recycling allows bones to adapt to stress; heavily stressed bones become thicker, stronger |
| Bone degeneration | occurs quickly; up to one-third of bone mass can be lost during a few weeks of inactivity |
| Minerals required for normal bone growth | calcium, phosphate salts, magnesium, fluoride, iron, manganese |
| Periosteal bone collar | the thin plate of compact bone that forms within the periosteum as it calcifies |
| Vitamins required for normal bone growth | A, B12, C, D3, K |
| Hormones involved in regulation of bone growth and maintenance | calcitriol, growth hormone, thyroxine, sex hormones, parathyroid hormone, calcitonin |
| Role of vitamin A in bone growth | stimulates osteoblast activity |
| Role of vitamin D3 in bone growth | required to synthesize calcitriol |
| Role of vitamin C in bone growth | collagen synthesis, stimulation of osteoblast differentiation |
| Role of vitamins B12 and K in bone growth | help synthesize bone proteins |
| Role of calcitriol in bone growth | helps absorb calcium and phosphorus from digestive tract |
| Role of growth hormone and thyroxine in bone growth | stimulate bone growth |
| Role of sex hormones in bone growth | stimulate osteoblast activity |
| Role of calcitonin and parathyroid hormone in bone growth | regulate calcium and phosphate levels in the body |
| Calcitriol | synthesized in kidneys; hormone involved in regulating absorption of calcium and phosphorus from digestive tract |
| Calcitonin | secreted by parafollicular cells in thyroid; decreases calcium ion levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity and increasing calcium excretion at the kidneys |
| Parathyroid hormone | produced by parathyroid glands in the neck; increases calcium ion levels by stimulating osteoclasts, increasing intestinal absorption of calcium, and decreasing calcium secretion at kidneys |
| Composition of bone | 33% organic compounds: 31% collagen, 2% bone cells; 67% inorganic compounds: 39% calcium, 17% phosphate, 9.8% carbonate, 0.7% sodium, 0.5% magnesium, 0.2% potassium |
| Bone fracture | crack or break in bone caused by physical stress |
| Four steps of bone fracture repair | bleeding, callus formation, spongy bone growth, bone remodeling |
| Bleeding in bone fracture repair | produces the fracture hematoma, establishes a fibrous network, and kills bone cells in area |
| Fracture hematoma | blood clot formed during bone fracture |
| Callus formation in bone fracture repair | created by cells of the endosteum (internal callus) and periosteum (external callus) that divide and migrate into the fracture zone; pad of cartilage and bone that surrounds the break |
| Spongy bone growth in bone fracture repair | osteoblasts replace the central cartilage of the external callus with spongy bone |
| Bone remodeling in bone fracture repair | takes up to a year; reduces the bone calluses around the fracture and replaces spongy bone with compact bone |
| Nine major types of bone fractures | Pott, comminuted, transverse, spiral, displaced, colles, greenstick, epiphyseal, compression |
| Pott fracture | break at the ankle which involves both the tibia and fibula |
| Comminuted fracture | bone shattered into many fragments |
| Transverse fracture | break of a bone shaft across its long axis |
| Spiral fracture | produced by twisting stresses that spread along the length of the bone |
| Displaced fracture | a fracture that produces an abnormal bone arrangement |
| Colles fracture | a break in the distal portion of the ulna, usually caused by cushioning a fall |
| Greenstick fracture | incomplete break of the bone; mostly occurs in young children |
| Epiphyseal fracture | occurs where the bone matrix is in the process of calcifying; unless treated carefully, can permanently stop bone growth |
| Compression fracture | occurs in vertebrae exposed to extreme stresses |
| Osteopenia | thinning and weakening of the bones with age; begins between 30 and 40 in women; women lose 8% of bone mass per decade, men lose 3% |
| Bones most affected by osteopenia | vertebrae, jaws, epiphyses of long bones |
| Osteoporosis | severe bone loss that affects normal function; over age 45, occurs in 29% of women and 18% of men |
| Hormones and bone loss | Sex hormones help maintain bone mass; bone loss in women accelerates after menopause |
| Cancer and bone loss | cancerous tissues release osteoclast-activating factor, which stimulates osteoclasts and produces severe osteoporosis |
| Types of anatomical structures of bones | articulations, landmarks, foramina |
| Articulation | a place on a bone that contacts other bones |
| Landmark | a marking on a bone that shows sites of muscle and ligament attachment |
| Axial skeleton | forms the longitudinal axis of the body; contains 80 bones; composed of the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage |
| Number of bones in the skull | 8 cranial, 14 facial |
| Bones associated with the skull | 6 auditory ossicles, hyoid bone |
| Facial bones | 2 nasal, 2 lacrimal, 2 zygomatic, 2 inferior nasal conchae, vomer, 2 maxillary, 2 palatine, mandible |
| Functions of the axial skeleton | supports and protects organs in body cavities; attaches to muscles of head, neck, trunk, appendicular skeleton, and respiratory muscles |
| Functions of the cranial bones | enclose the cranial cavity, supporting and protecting the brain, fluids, blood vessels, nerves, and membrane |
| Function of superficial facial bones | muscle attachment |
| Cerebrospinal fluid | fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord, contained by the cranial cavity and vertebral column |
| Function of deep facial bones | separate oral and nasal cavities, form nasal septum |
| Cranial cavity | space created by the cranial bones which houses the brain |
| Superficial facial bones | nasal, lacrimal, zygomatic, maxillary, mandible |
| Deep facial bones | palatine, inferior nasal conchae, vomer |
| Characteristics of cranial sinuses | lined with mucous membranes, protect the entrances of the respiratory system |
| Four major sutures of the skull | lambdoid, coronal, sagittal, squamous |
| Lambdoid suture | separates the occipital from the parietal bones; may contain Wormian bones |
| Coronal suture | attaches the frontal bone to the parietal bones |
| Calvaria | the skullcap; consists of the superior portions of the frontal, parietal, and occipital bones |
| Sagittal suture | between the parietal bones; runs from the lambdoid suture to the coronal suture |
| Squamous sutures | form boundaries between the parietal and temporal bones |
| Functions of the occipital bone | forms the posterior and inferior surfaces of the cranium |
| Articulations of the occipital bone | parietal, temporal, sphenoid, atlas |
| Marks of the occipital bone | external occipital protuberance, external occipital crest, occipital condyles, inferior and superior nuchal lines |
| External occipital protuberance | raised area on occipital bone, posterior to the occipital crest |
| External occipital crest | raised area on occipital bone posterior to the foramen magnum |
| Occipital condyles | processes that allow the occipital bone to articulate with the atlas |
| Inferior and superior nuchal lines | lines running perpendicular to the occipital protuberance and crest, which allow attachment of muscles and ligaments |
| Foramina of the occipital bone | foramen magnum, jugular foramen, hypoglossal canals |
| Foramen magnum | the large opening in the occipital bone through which the spinal cord passes |
| Jugular foramen | opening in the occipital bone that allows the passage of the jugular vein |
| Hypoglossal canals | openings on the occipital bone anterior to the foramen magnum, through which the hypoglossal nerves pass |
| Functions of parietal bones | forms part of the superior and lateral surfaces of the cranium |
| Articulations of the parietal bones | the other parietal bone, occipital, temporal, frontal, sphenoid |
| Marks of the parietal bones | superior and inferior temporal lines, grooves for cranial blood vessels |
| Superior and inferior temporal lines | raised lines on the parietal bones where the temporalis muscle attaches |
| Functions of the frontal bone | forms the anterior cranium and upper eye sockets; contains frontal sinuses |
| Articulations of the frontal bone | parietal, zygomatic, lacrimal, nasal, ethmoid, sphenoid, maxilla, metopic suture |
| Metopic suture | the suture between the left and right portions of the frontal bone |
| Marks of the frontal bone | frontal squama, supra-orbital margin, lacrimal fossa, frontal sinuses |
| Frontal squama | the anterior portion of the frontal bone that forms the forehead |
| Supra-orbital margin | the arches of the upper eye sockets in the frontal bone |
| Lacrimal fossa | opening inside the eye socket on the frontal bone that allows passage of the tear ducts |
| Frontal sinuses | air pockets in the frontal bone lined with mucous membranes |
| Foramen of the frontal bone | supra-orbital foramen |
| Supra-orbital foramen | opening on the frontal bone that allows passage of blood vessels that supply the eyebrows, eyelids, and frontal sinuses |
| Supra-orbital notch | an incomplete supra-orbital foramen |
| Functions of the temporal bones | part of lateral wall of cranium and zygomatic arches; articulate with mandible; surround and protect inner ears; attach muscles of jaws and head |
| Articulations of the temporal bones | zygomatic, sphenoid, parietal, occipital, mandible |
| Marks of the temporal bones | squamous part, mandibular fossa, zygomatic process, mastoid process |
| Squamous part of the temporal bone | borders the squamous suture |
| Mandibular fossa | articulates with the mandible |
| Zygomatic process | inferior to the squamous portion; articulates with the temporal process of the zygomatic bone; forms the zygomatic arch |
| Zygomatic arch | cheekbone |
| Mastoid process | process that attaches to muscles, and contains mastoid air cells connected to the middle ear |
| Marks of the temporal bones | styloid process, petrous part, auditory ossicles |
| Styloid process of the temporal bone | process inferior to the external acoustic meatus, and between the mastoid and zygomatic processes; attaches tendons and ligaments of the hyoid, tongue, and pharynx |
| Petrous part of the temporal bone | medial portion of the temporal bone that encloses the inner ear |
| Auditory ossicles | tiny bones in the tympanic cavity that transfer sound from the eardrum to the inner ear |
| Foramina of the temporal bones | carotid canal, foramen lacerum, external acoustic meatus, stylomastoid foramen, internal acoustic meatus |
| Carotid canal | internal passage of the carotid artery in the temporal bone, superior to the foramen lacerum |
| Foramen lacerum | irregularly shaped opening medial to the petrous part of the temporal bone, filled with hyaline cartilage; carries small arteries |
| External acoustic meatus | large opening in the temporal bone that ends at the tympanic membrane |
| Stylomastoid foramen | opening in the temporal bone between the styloid and mastoid processes that carries a facial nerve |
| Internal acoustic meatus | opening on the medial surface of the temporal bone that carries blood vessels and nerves of the inner ear, as well as a facial nerve |
| Function of the sphenoid | forms part of the floor of the cranium; unites cranial and facial bones; strengthens sides of the skull; contains sphenoidal sinuses |
| Articulations of the sphenoid | frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, ethmoid bones; zygomatic, palatine, maxillary bones, and vomer |
| Marks of the sphenoid | sphenoid body, sella turcica, hypophyseal fossa, sphenoidal sinuses, greater and lesser wings, pterygoid processes |
| Sphenoid body | at the central axis of the sphenoid |
| Sella turcica | saddle-shaped enclosure on the superior portion of the sphenoid body |
| Hypophyseal fossa | depression within the sella turcica where the pituitary gland sits |
| Sphenoidal sinuses | air pockets that lie on either side of the sphenoidal body, inferior to the sella turcica |
| Lesser wings of the sphenoid | project anteriorly to the sella turcica |
| Greater wings of the sphenoid | form part of the cranial floor and the posterior wall of the orbit; contain the sphenoidal spines |
| Sphenoidal spine | projection from the greater wings of the sphenoid |
| Pterygoid processes | projections on the sphenoid bone that forms the pterygoid plates, which serve as attachments for the muscles of the lower jaw and soft palate |
| Foramina of the sphenoid | optic canals, superior orbital fissure, foramen rotundum, foramen ovale, foramen spinosum |
| Optic canals | openings in the sphenoid bone that carry the optic nerves to the brain |
| Superior orbital fissure | carries blood vessels and nerves for the orbit |
| Foramen rotundum | openings on the body of the sphenoid that carry blood vessels and nerves to the face |
| Foramen ovale | a large, oval opening on the greater wing of the sphenoid that carries blood vessels and nerves to the face |
| Foramen spinosum | an opening posterior to the foramen ovale on the sphenoid that carries blood vessels and nerves to the jaws |
| Functions of the ethmoid bone | forms the anteromedial floor of the cranium and the roof of the nasal cavity; forms part of the nasal septum and medial orbital wall; contains the ethmoidal air cells |
| Ethmoidal air cells | a network of sinuses in the ethmoid bone |
| Articulations of the ethmoid | frontal and sphenoid bones; nasal and lacrimal bones, inferior nasal conchae, vomer, and palatine and maxillary bones |
| Three parts of the ethmoid | cribriform plate, lateral masses, perpendicular plate |
| Cribriform plate | a plate of bone within the ethmoid that forms part of the cranial floor and the roof of the nasal cavity, and contains the crista galli |
| Lateral masses of the ethmoid | contains the ethmoidal labyrinth, and superior and medial nasal conchae |
| Ethmoidal labyrinth | another name for the ethmoidal air cells |
| Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid | vertical portion of the ethmoid that forms part of the nasal septum |
| Olfactory foramina | foramina of the ethmoid which occur in the cribriform plate, and carry the olfactory nerves |
| Functions of the maxillae | support upper teeth; form upper jaw, hard palate, inferior orbital rim, lateral margins of external nares; contain maxillary sinuses |
| External nares | Nostrils |
| Articulations of the maxillae | frontal, ethmoid, one another, all other facial bones except the mandible |
| Marks of the maxillae | orbital rim, anterior nasal spine, alveolar processes, palatine processes, maxillary sinuses, nasolacrimal canal |
| Orbital rim of the maxillae | lower rim of the orbit |
| Anterior nasal spine | attaches to the cartilaginous anterior nasal septum |
| Alveolar processes | borders the mouth and supports the teeth |
| Palatine processes | form the hard palate (roof of the mouth) |
| Maxillary sinuses | air pockets within the maxillae |
| Nasolacrimal canal | canal in the maxillae that connects the orbit and nasal cavity, and protects the lacrimal sac and nasolacrimal ducts |
| Foramina of the maxillae | infra-orbital foramen, inferior orbital fissure |
| Infra-orbital foramen | passage for a sensory nerve to the brain (also passes through the foramen rotundum of the sphenoid) |
| Inferior orbital fissure | allows passage of cranial nerves of blood vessels |
| Functions of the palatine bones | form the posterior portion of the hard palate; contribute to the floors of the orbits |
| Articulations of the palatine bones | other palatine bone, maxillae, sphenoid, ethmoid, inferior nasal conchae, vomer |
| Divisions of the palatine bones | horizontal plate, perpendicular plate |
| Horizonal plate of the palatine bones | posterior part of the hard palate |
| Perpendicular plate of the palatine bones | from the horizontal plate to the orbital process of the orbit floor |
| Foramina of the palatine bones | many in the lateral portion of the horizontal plate for small blood vessels and nerves of the roof of the mouth |
| Functions of the nasal bones | support the bridge of the nose, connect to cartilages of the distal part of the nose |
| Articulations of the nasal bones | other nasal bone, ethmoid, frontal, maxillae |
| Functions of the vomer | forms inferior portion of the bony nasal septum |
| Articulations of the vomer | sphenoid, ethmoid, palatine, maxillae, cartilaginous nasal septum |
| Functions of the inferior nasal conchae | create air turbulence in the nasal cavity, increase epithelial surface area, warm and humidify inhaled air |
| Articulations of the inferior nasal conchae | ethmoid, maxillae, palatine, lacrimal |
| Functions of the zygomatic bones | contribute to the rim and lateral wall of the orbit, form part of the zygomatic arch |
| Articulations of the zygomatic bones | sphenoid, frontal, temporal, maxillae |
| Mark of the zygomatic bones | temporal process |
| Temporal process | process on the zygomatic bone that contacts the zygomatic process of the temporal bone |
| Foramen of the zygomatic bones | zygomaticofacial foramen |
| Zygomaticofacial foramen | allows passage of the sensory nerves of the cheeks |
| Functions of the lacrimal bones | form part of the medial wall of the orbit |
| Articulations of the lacrimal bones | frontal, maxillae, ethmoid |
| Marks of the lacrimal bones | lacrimal sulcus |
| Lacrimal sulcus | location of the lacrimal sac; leads to the nasolacrimal canal |
| Functions of the mandible | forms the lower jaw |
| Articulations of the mandible | mandibular fossae of the temporal bones |
| Marks of the mandible | body, alveolar processes, mental protuberance, medial depression, mylohyoid line, ramus, condylar process, coronoid process, mandibular notch |
| Mandibular body | horizontal portion of the mandible |
| Mandibular alveolar processes | support the lower teeth |
| Mental protuberance | attaches facial muscles on the mandible |
| Medial depression of the mandible | supports the submandibular salivary gland |
| Mylohyoid line | raised ridge on the mandible for insertion of the mylohyoid muscle, which forms the floor of the mouth |
| Ramus of the mandible | ascends from the mandibular angle on either side |
| Condylar processes of the mandible | articulate with the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone at the temporomandibular joint |
| Coronoid processes of the mandible | serves as insertion point for temporalis muscle |
| Mandibular notch | separates condylar and coronoid processes |
| Foramina of the mandible | mental, mandibular |
| Mental foramina of the mandible | allow passage of the sensory nerves of the lips and chin |
| Mandibular foramina | form entrance to the mandibular canal, carry blood vessels and nerves of the lower teeth |
| Functions of the hyoid bone | supports the larynx, attaches muscles of the larynx, pharynx, and tongue |
| Articulations of the hyoid bone | none; connected by ligaments via the lesser horns to the styloid processes of the temporal bones |
| Marks of the hyoid bone | body, greater cornua, lesser cornua |
| Body of the hyoid bone | attaches muscles of the larynx, tongue, and pharynx |
| Greater cornua of the hyoid bone | greater horns; support larynx; attach muscles of the tongue |
| Lesser cornua of the hyoid bone | lesser horns; attach stylohyoid ligaments, support hyoid and larynx |
| Orbital complex | forms the orbits; composed of the frontal, maxillary, lacrimal, ethmoid, sphenoid, and palatine bones |
| Paranasal sinuses | air-filled chambers connected to the nasal cavities; lighten the skull bones, and provide mucous epithelium to flush the nasal cavities |
| Properties of the infant skull | grows rapidly, is large compared to the body, has many ossification centers, and is incompletely fused at birth; frontal bone is separated in two, occipital separated into four, several sphenoidal, temporal elements |
| Fontanelles | areas of fibrous connective tissue that cover unfused sutures in the infant skull; allow the skull to flex during birth, and allows growth of the developing brain after birth |
| Four main fontanelles of the infant skull | anterior, occipital, sphenoidal, mastoid |
| Anterior fontanelle | connects the frontal, sagittal, and coronal sutures |
| Occipital fontanelle | connects the lambdoid and sagittal sutures |
| Sphenoidal fontanelle | connects the squamous and coronal sutures |
| Mastoid fontanelle | connects the squamous and lambdoid sutures |
| Number of bones in the vertebral column | protects the spinal cord, supports the head and body |
| Number of bones in the vertebral column | 26 |
| Types of vertebrae | cervical, thoracic, lumbar |
| Number of cervical vertebrae | 7 |
| Number of thoracic vertebrae | 12 |
| Number of lumbar vertebrae | 5 |
| Two additional bones of the vertebral column | sacrum, coccyx |
| Four curvatures of the vertebral column | cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral |
| Primary curves of the vertebral column | thoracic and sacral; also called accommodation curves; present during fetal development, accommodate internal organs |
| Secondary curves of the vertebral column | cervical and lumbar; also called compensation curves; appear after birth, shift body weight for upright posture |
| Accommodation curves of the vertebral column | thoracic and sacral |
| Compensation curves of the vertebral column | cervical and lumbar |
| Structure of a vertebra | body (centrum), arch, articular process |
| Vertebral body | flat, disc-like portion of the vertebra; transfers weight along the spine |
| Vertebral arch | forms the posterior margin of the vertebral foramen; composed of the pedicles, laminae, spinous process, and transverse process |
| Articular processes of the vertebrae | lateral projections between laminae and pedicles |
| Pedicle | wall of the vertebral arch |
| Lamina | part of the roof of the vertebral arch |
| Spinous process | projection where vertebral laminae fuse |
| Transverse process | projection where the laminae join the pedicles |
| Foramina of the vertebrae | intervertebral, vertebral canal |
| Intervertebral foramen | gap between pedicles of adjacent vertebrae; carries nerve connections to spinal cord |
| Vertebral canal | formed by vertebral foramina; encloses the spinal cord |
| Intervertebral discs | pads of fibrous cartilage that separate the vertebral bodies and absorb shock |
| Vertebral regions | method to label vertebrae, by dividing them into regions and assigning them numbers; cervical (C), thoracic (T), lumbar (L), sacral (S), and coccygeal (Co) |
| Properties of cervical vertebrae | C1 to C7; small body, large vertebral foramen, concave superior surface, slopes posterior to anterior, bifid spinous processes; C1 vertebra has no spinous process, C2 has odontoid process |
| Transverse foramina | encircled by fused transverse and costal processes to protect arteries and veins |
| C1 vertebra | atlas vertebra |
| Atlas vertebra | articulates with occipital condyles of the skull, has no body or spinous process, has a large, round foramen with anterior and posterior arches |
| C2 vertebra | axis vertebra |
| Axis vertebra | supports the atlas, has heavy spinous processes, attaches muscles of the head and neck; body fuses with the body of the atlas to form the dens |
| C7 vertebra | vertebra prominens |
| Vertebra prominens | transitions to thoracic vertebrae, has a long spinous process with a broad tubercle, has large transverse processes, attaches ligamentum nuchae |
| Ligamentum nuchae | attaches C7 vertebra to skull |
| Properties of thoracic vertebrae | heart-shaped bodies; larger bodies and smaller vertebral foramen than cervical vertebrae; long, slender spinous processes; dorsolateral surfaces of body have costal facets that articulate with heads of the ribs; T10-T12 transition to lumbar vertebrae |
| Transverse costal facets | located on T1-T10 |
| Rib articulations on thoracic vertebrae | two each on T1-T8, one each on T9-T11 |
| Properties of lumbar vertebrae | largest vertebrae; oval-shaped bodies; thicker bodies than T1-T12; no costal or transverse costal facets; triangular vertebral foramen, superior articular processes that face up and in; inferior articular processes that face down and out |
| Transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae | slender, project dorsolaterally |
| Spinous processes of lumbar vertebrae | short and heavy, attach lower back muscles |
| Properties of the sacrum | more curved in males than females; protects reproductive, urinary, and digestive organs; attaches axial skeleton to pelvic girdle, broad muscles that move the thigh; consists of five vertebrae that fuse between puberty and 25-30 years |
| Marks and foramina of the sacrum | sacral canal, sacral cornua, sacral hiatus, medial sacral crest, lateral sacral crest, auricular surface, sacral tuberosity |
| Sacral canal | replaces the vertebral canal |
| Sacral cornua | horn-shaped, formed by laminae of the fifth sacral vertebra which do not meet at midline |
| Sacral hiatus | opening at the inferior end of the sacral canal formed by the ridges of the sacral cornua; covered by connective tissue |
| Median sacral crest | fused spinous processes with four pairs of sacral foramina open to either side |
| Lateral sacral crest | fused transverse processes that attach to muscles of lower back and hip |
| Auricular surface | thick, flattened area of the sacrum that articulates with the pelvic girdle at the sacroiliac joint |
| Sacral tuberosity | rough area on the sacrum that attaches ligaments of the sacroiliac joint |
| Four regions of the sacrum | base, ala, sacral promontory, apex |
| Base of the sacrum | broad superior surface of the sacrum |
| Ala of the sacrum | wings at either side of the base of the sacrum that attach muscles |
| Sacral promontory | found at the center of the base of the sacrum |
| Apex of the sacrum | narrow inferior portion of the sacrum that articulates with the coccyx |
| Properties of the coccyx | attaches ligaments and a constricting muscle of the anus; consists of three to five fused coccygeal vertebrae |
| Properties of the first two coccygeal vertebrae | have transverse processes, have unfused vertebral arches |
| Coccygeal cornua | formed by laminae of the first coccygeal vertebra |
| Thoracic cage | supports the thoracic cavity; consists of thoracic vertebrae, ribs, and sternum |
| Functions of the thoracic cage | protects organs of the thoracic cavity (heart, lungs, thymus); attaches muscles for respiration, and of vertebral column, pectoral girdle, and upper limbs |
| Functions of ribs | mobile, can absorb shocks, affect width and depth of thoracic cavity, changing its volume and allowing respiration |
| Properties of costae | 12 pairs of long, curved, flat bones extending from the thoracic vertebrae |
| Two types of costae | true ribs, false ribs |
| Costae | ribs |
| True ribs | pairs 1-7; attached to sternum by costal cartilage |
| Vertebrosternal ribs | true ribs, pairs 1-7 |
| False ribs | pairs 8-12; do not attach directly to the sternum; ribs 8-10 fuse together and merge with cartilage before reaching the sternum, ribs 11-12 connect only to the vertebrae and back muscles |
| Vertebrochondral ribs | false ribs pairs 8-10 that fuse and merge with cartilage before reaching the sternum |
| Floating/vertebral ribs | false ribs pairs 11 and 12 that connect only to the vertebrae and back muscles |
| Structure of a rib | head/capitulum, neck, tubercle, tubercular body |
| Head/capitulum of a rib | at the vertebral end of the rib, has superior and inferior articular facets |
| Neck of a rib | short area between the head and tubercle |
| Tubercle of a rib | small dorsal elevation that has an auricular facet that contacts the facet of its thoracic vertebra (T1-T10 only) |
| Tubercular body of a rib | shaft of the rib; attaches muscles of the pectoral girdle and trunk; attaches to the intercostal muscles that move the ribs |
| Properties of the sternum | flat bone in the midline of the thoracic wall |
| Three parts of the sternum | manubrium, gladiolus, xiphoid process |
| Manubrium of the sternum | superior portion of the sternum; broad, triangular shape that articulates with clavicles and cartilages of first rib pair; contains a jugular notch |
| Jugular notch of the sternal manubrium | shallow indentation between clavicular articulations that can be palpated at the "hollow" of the neck |
| Gladiolus of the sternum | also known as the sternal body; tongue shaped, attached to manubrium, attaches to costal cartilages of ribs 2-7 |
| Xiphoid process | smallest part of the sternum; attaches to sternal body, diaphragm, and rectus abdominis muscles |
| Development of the sternum | sternal body contains four parts that complete fusion around age 25, leaving transverse lines; xiphoid process is the last to fuse, and can easily be broken away |
| Appendicular skeleton | contains 126 bones; allows us to move and manipulate objects; includes all bones besides axial skeleton |
| Pectoral girdle | connects arms to body, positions shoulders, and provides a base for arm movement; consists of two clavicles and two scapulae; connects with the axial skeleton at the manubrium |
| Clavicles | long, S-shaped bones that originate at the manubrium and articulate with the scapulae |
| Marks of the clavicle | acromial end, sternal end, conoid tubercle, costal tuberosity, acromial facet, sternal facet |
| Acromial end of the clavicle | end that articulates with the scapula; contact point is the acromial facet |
| Conoid tubercle of the clavicle | rough projection at the posterior inferior side of the clavicle; contacts the coracoid process of the scapula and attaches the conoid ligament |
| Costal tuberosity | broad rough surface on the medial part of the clavicle, attaches the costoclavicular ligament |
| Sternal end of the clavicle | end that articulates with the manubrium; contains the sternal facet |
| Scapulae | shoulder blades; broad, flat triangles that articulate with the arm and collarbone |
| Structures of the scapula | subscapular fossa; superior, medial, and lateral borders; superior, inferior, and lateral angles; scapular head; glenoid cavity; coracoid process; acromion; scapular spine; supraspinous and infraspinous fossae |
| Subscapular fossa | anterior surface of the scapula |
| Borders of the scapula | superior, medial, lateral |
| Angles of the scapula | superior, inferior, lateral |
| Vertebral border of the scapula | medial border of the scapula |
| Axillary border of the scapula | lateral border of the scapula |
| Scapular head | holds glenoid cavity which articulates with humerus to form shoulder joint |
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