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A&P Chapter 3
A&P Lecture Week 3
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Cell theory | the theory that cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals |
| Properties of cells | come from the division of preexisting cells; smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions; maintains homeostasis at cellular level |
| Germ cells | sex cells |
| Sex cells | reproductive cells; in males, sperm; in females, oocytes |
| Somatic cells | all body cells except sex cells |
| Extracellular fluid | interstitial fluid |
| Interstitial fluid | the watery medium that surrounds each cell |
| Plasmalemma | plasma membrane |
| Plasma membrane | separates the cytoplasm from the extracellular fluid |
| Cytoplasm | composed of the cytosol and organelles |
| Functions of the plasma membrane | physical isolation, regulates exchange with environment, monitors environment, structural support |
| Membrane lipids | double layer of phospholipid molecules |
| Phospholipid | a molecule composed of a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail |
| Function of membrane lipids | serve as a barrier to ions and water-soluble compounds |
| Membrane proteins | proteins that are bound to the inner or outer surface of the membrane, or which exist within the membrane |
| Integral proteins | membrane proteins that lie within the membrane |
| Peripheral proteins | membrane proteins that are bound to the inner or outer surface of the membrane |
| Functional categories of membrane proteins | anchoring proteins (stabilizers), recognition proteins (identifiers), enzymes, receptor proteins, carrier proteins, channels |
| Function of anchoring proteins (stabilizers) | attach to inside or outside structures |
| Function of recognition proteins (identifiers) | label cells as normal or abnormal |
| Function of enzymes | catalyze reactions |
| Function of receptor proteins | bind and respond to ligands such as ions and hormones |
| Function of carrier proteins | transport specific solutes through membrane |
| Function of channels | regulate water flow and solutes through membrane |
| Membrane carbohydrates | composed of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids |
| Glycocalyx (gly·co·ca·lyx) | a sticky sugar coat of membrane carbohydrates surrounding the cell |
| Functions of glycocalyx | lubrication and protection, anchoring and locomotion, specificity in binding, recognition |
| Cytosol | intracellular fluid composed of dissolved materials; high potassium/low sodium, high protein, high carbohydrate, low amino acid and fat |
| Organelles | structures with specific functions |
| Nonmembranous organelles | includes cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia, ribosomes, and proteasomes; in direct contact with cytosol |
| Membranous organelles | includes endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria; isolated from cytosol by plasma membrane |
| Cytoskeleton | structural proteins for shape and strength |
| Types of cytoskeleton fibers | microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules |
| Microfilaments | thin filaments composed of actin |
| Functions of microfilaments | provide additional mechanical strength; interact with proteins for consistency; pair with thicker filaments of myosin for muscle movement |
| Intermediate filaments | composed of collagen, mid-sized between microfilaments and microtubules |
| Functions of intermediate filaments | create durability, strengthen cell and maintain shape, stabilize organelles, stabilize cell position |
| Microtubules | large, hollow tubes composed of tubulin |
| Functions of microtubules | attach to centrosome during mitosis, strengthen cell and anchor organelles, change cell shape, move vesicles within cells using kinesin and dynein, and form spindle apparatus |
| Microvilli | finger-like outcroppings of the cell that increase surface area for absorption and attach to cytoskeleton |
| Centrosome | cytoplasm surrounding centrioles |
| Centriole | one of 27 short microtubules that forms the spindle apparatus in cell division |
| Cilia | small hair-like extensions that move fluids across the cell surface |
| Ciliary movement | consists of a power stroke, where cilia are fully extended and stiff, and a return stroke, where cilia are soft and relaxed |
| Ribosome | builds polypeptides in protein synthesis; can be free or fixed |
| Free ribosome | manufactures proteins for secretion |
| Fixed ribosome | attached to ER, manufactures proteins for the cell |
| Proteasome | contains protease enzymes that disassemble damaged proteins for recycling |
| Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) | literally means "network (reticulum) within (endo-) the cytoplasm (-plasmic)"; contains storage chambers, or cisternae |
| Functions of the ER | synthesizes proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids; stores synthesized molecules and materials; transports materials within the ER; and detoxifies drugs and toxins |
| Smooth endoplasmic reticulum | ER with no ribosomes; synthesizes phospholipids and cholesterol for membranes, steroid hormones for the reproductive system, glycerides for storage in fat and liver cells, and glycogen for storage in muscles |
| Rough endoplasmic reticulum | ER that has ribosomes all over its surface; active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis, folds polypeptide protein structures, and encloses products in transport vesicles |
| Golgi apparatus | membranous organelle that accepts vesicles via its forming face and secretes vesicles via its maturing face |
| Secretory vesicle | a vesicle formed by the Golgi apparatus that modifies and packages products for exocytosis |
| Membrane renewal vesicle | a vesicle formed by the Golgi apparatus that adds or removes membrane components |
| Lysosome | a powerful enzyme-containing vesicle that cleans up inside cells, and can participate in cell self-destruction |
| Primary lysosome | a lysosome created by the Golgi apparatus and inactive enzymes |
| Secondary lysosome | a lysosome fused with a damaged organelle that is isolating toxic chemicals and activating its digestive enzymes |
| How lysosomes clean up in cells | clean up inside cells by breaking down large molecules, attacking bacteria, recycling damaged organelles, and ejecting wastes by exocytosis |
| Autolysis | the process of cell self-destruction, where lysosome membranes break down, releasing digestive enzymes into the cell and decomposing it so other cells can recycle the materials |
| Peroxisome | an enzyme-containing vesicle that breaks down fatty acids and other organic compounds, produces hydrogen peroxide, and replicates by division |
| Membrane flow | continuous exchange of membrane parts by vesicles that allows adaptation and change |
| Mitochondrion | an organelle that takes chemical energy from glucose and produces ATP |
| Cristae | inner folds in the mitochondrial membrane |
| Matrix | fluid around the cristae |
| Aerobic metabolism | the process by which mitochondria use oxygen to break down food and produce ATP; the reactants are glucose, oxygen, and ADP, and the products are carbon dioxide, water, and ATP |
| Cellular respiration | aerobic metabolism |
| Glycolysis | a reaction that occurs in the cytosol that converts glucose to pyruvic acid |
| Tricarboxylic cycle | a reaction that converts pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide that occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion |
| Electron transport chain - look up in textbook | |
| Nucleus | largest organelle, cell's control center |
| Nuclear envelope | double membrane around nucleus |
| Perinuclear space | area between the layers of the nuclear envelope |
| Nuclear pores | communication passages between the inside of the nucleus and the cytoplasm |
| Contents of the nucleus | DNA, nucleoplasm, nuclear matrix, nucleoli, nucleosomes, chromatin, chromosomes |
| Purpose of DNA | contains all information to build and run organisms |
| Nucleoplasm | fluid containing ions, enzymes, nucleotides, and some RNA |
| Nucleoli | related to protein production; made of RNA, enzymes, and histones; synthesize rRNA and ribosomal subunits |
| Histones | proteins that bind DNA in order to compactify it |
| rRNA | ribosomal RNA |
| Nucleosome | one unit of chromatin |
| Chromatin | complex consisting of DNA and attached proteins bound to histone cores |
| Chromosome | a distinct portion of DNA that compactifies into a single unit during mitosis |
| Gene | DNA instructions for one protein |
| Genetic code | the chemical language of DNA instructions, consisting of four types of bases; a triplet of bases codes for a single amino acid |
| Role of gene activation in protein synthesis | nucleus contains chromosomes; chromosomes contain DNA; DNA stores genetic instructions for proteins; proteins determine cell structure and function |
| Steps of protein synthesis | transcription, translation, processing |
| Transcription | copies instructions from DNA to mRNA |
| Translation | ribosome reads code from mRNA in cytoplasm, assembles amino acids into polypeptide chain |
| Processing | chaperone molecules in the RER and Golgi apparatus assist the protein in folding into the appropriate conformation |
| Steps of transcribing a gene to mRNA | gene activation, DNA to mRNA, RNA processing |
| Steps of gene activation | uncoils DNA, removes histones; promoter and stop codons on DNA mark location of gene; coding strand is code for protein, template strand is used by RNA polymerase |
| Steps of converting DNA to mRNA | RNA polymerase binds to promoter sequence; reads DNA code for gene; binds nucleotides to form mRNA; mRNA duplicates DNA coding strand, replacing thymine with uracil |
| Steps of RNA processing | at stop signal, mRNA detaches from DNA; unnecessary codes (introns) removed; good codes (exons) spliced together; three nucleotides (codon) represent one amino acid |
| Steps of translation | mRNA moves from the nucleus to a ribosome and binds to ribosomal subunits; tRNA delivers amino acids to mRNA; tRNA anticodon binds to mRNA codon; enzymes join amino acids with peptide bonds; components separate at stop codon |
| How the nucleus controls cell structure and function | direct control through synthesis of structural proteins and secretions; indirect control over metabolism through enzymes |
| Permeability | the amount of freedom nutrients, products, and wastes have to cross the cell barrier |
| Impermeable | lets nothing in or out |
| Freely permeable | lets anything pass |
| Selectively permeable | restricts movement |
| Types of diffusion across plasma membranes | simple, channel-mediated |
| Materials that diffuse by simple diffusion | lipid-soluble compounds, like fatty acids, steroids, and alcohols; dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide) |
| Materials that pass through transmembrane proteins | water-soluble compounds and ions |
| Factors in channel-mediated diffusion | size of molecule or ion, electromagnetic charge, interaction with channel |
| Osmosis | diffusion of water across the cell membrane when the amount of solutes is different on either side of the membrane |
| Role of osmosis in blood pressure | when Na+ ions are too concentrated in the blood stream, water in the interstitial fluid osmoses from tissue into the blood, increasing circulating volume and therefore increasing blood pressure |
| Osmotic pressure | the force of a concentration gradient of water; equal to the hydrostatic pressure needed to block osmosis |
| Hydrostatic pressure | pressure applied to a solution with a greater concentration of solutes which prevents water from flowing into the solution |
| Osmolarity | an absolute measure of the osmotic pressure a solution exerts |
| Tonicity | a relative measure of the osmotic pressure a solution exerts on a cell |
| Isotonic | a solution that does not cause osmotic flow of water in or out of the cell |
| Hypotonic | has less solutes and loses water by osmosis |
| Hypertonic | has more solutes and gains water by osmosis |
| Hemolysis | the effect of a hypotonic solution on a red blood cell; the cell ruptures due to an excess of water inside |
| Crenation | the effect of a hypertonic solution on a red blood cell; the cell shrinks and wrinkles due to insufficient water inside |
| Carrier-mediated transport | transport of ions and organic substrates across the cell membrane via transport proteins |
| Types of carrier-mediated transport | facilitated diffusion, active transport |
| Characteristics of carrier-mediated transport | specificity, saturation limits, regulation |
| Specificity of carrier-mediated transport | one transport protein handles one set of substrates |
| Saturation limits of carrier-mediated transport | rate of transport depends on proteins and substrate |
| Regulation of carrier-mediated transport | rate of transport can be affected by cofactors such as hormones or vitamins |
| Cotransport | carrier-mediated transport that involves two substrates moving simultaneously in the same direction |
| Countertransport | carrier-mediated transport that involves one substrate moving in one direction while another substrate moves in the opposite direction |
| Facilitated diffusion | passive carrier-mediated transport; carrier proteins transport molecules too large to fit through channel proteins, such as glucose and amino acids; receptor is specific to certain molecules |
| Active transport | moves substances against the concentration gradient; requires energy in the form of ATP or similar; ion pumps move ions, and exchange pumps countertransport multiple ions simultaneously |
| Sodium-potassium exchange pump | example of active carrier-mediated transport; takes 1 ATP, moves 2 K+ and 3 Na+ ions |
| Secondary active transport | cotransport; for example, Na+ serves as cofactor for glucose transport, and then is removed by exchange pump |
| Vesicular transport | transporting materials using plasma-enclosed vesicles |
| Endocytosis | bringing materials into the cell via a vesicle |
| Exocytosis | releasing materials from the cell via a vesicle |
| Receptor-mediated endocytosis | receptor glycoproteins bind to ligands; a coated vesicle, or endosome, carries the ligands and receptors into the cell |
| Pinocytosis | carrying extracellular fluid into the cell via endosomes |
| Phagocytosis | cell engulfs a large object, such as a prey cell or an invading bacterium, in a phagosome and digests it |
| Transmembrane potential | unequal electric charge across the membrane that can range from -10 mV to -100mV at rest |
| Interphase | the nondividing phase of a cell's life cycle, consisting of the G1, S, and G2 phases |
| G1 phase | normal cell functions plus cell growth, duplication of organelles, and protein synthesis |
| S phase | DNA replication and histone synthesis |
| G2 phase | protein synthesis |
| Mitosis | cell divides into two identical daughter cells; consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase |
| Cytokinesis | the process of separating genetic material, organelles, and proteins equally between daughter cells |
| Chromosome | tightly coiled DNA that is condensed for cell division |
| Chromatid | a unit of highly compacted DNA |
| Centromere | the central connection for all chromatids in a chromosome |
| Kinetochore | the protein complex around the centromere that attaches to the spindle fibers |
| Prophase | nucleoli disappear, centriole pairs move to cell poles, microtubules extend between centriole pairs, nuclear envelope disappears, spindle fibers attach to kinetochore |
| Metaphase | chromosomes align at the metaphase plate |
| Metaphase plate | the central plane of a mitotic cell where chromosomes align during metaphase |
| Anaphase | microtubules pull chromosomes apart, daughter chromosomes group near centrioles |
| Telophase | nuclear membranes re-form, chromosomes uncoil, nucleoli reappear, cell has two complete nuclei |
| Cleavage furrow | inward growth of new plasma membrane at the metaphase plate during cytokinesis, which results in membrane closure and the formation of two identical daughter cells |
| Mitotic rate | the rate at which a cell divides, which determines lifespan; shorter-lived cells use more energy |
| Factors that increase cell division | internal factors, such as M-phase promoting factor and MPF, and extracellular growth factors |
| Factors that decrease cell division | repressor genes, which are deactivated in cancerous tumors, and worn out telomeres |
| Telomere | terminal DNA segment that allows the full strand to be copied in DNA replication |
| Stages of cancer development | abnormal cell, primary tumor, metastasis, secondary tumor |
| Benign tumor | a mass of cancerous cells that is contained and not life-threatening |
| Malignant tumor | a mass of cancerous cells that invades surrounding tissue and starts new tumors |
| Metastasis | the process by which a cancerous cell splits off of the primary tumor and travels to a secondary site within the body, developing into a secondary cancerous mass |
| Cell differentiation | the process by which cells develop along different paths, by turning off all genes not needed by that cell |
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