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Brain
Anatomy & Physiology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| four major regions of the brain | cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, and cerebellem |
| cerebrum | divided into two halves and further subdivided into five lobes |
| two halves of the cerebrum | hemisphere |
| central nervous system | brain and spinal cord |
| brain is... | associated with 12 pairs of cranial nerves |
| the outer surface of the brain has... | gyri, sulci, and fissures |
| gyri | folds |
| sulci | shallow depressions |
| fissures | deeper grooves |
| anterior | rostral ("toward the nose") |
| posterior | caudal ("toward the tail") |
| two tissue areas of the brain and spinal cord | gray matter and white matter |
| gray matter | color from motor and interneuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons (outer edges of the brain) |
| white matter | color from myelin on axons (glossy appearance) (spinal area) |
| protective structures | cranium, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and blood-brain barrier |
| cranium | provides rigid support |
| meninges | surround and partition |
| cerebrospinal fluid | cushions |
| blood-brain barrier | prevents entry of harmful materials |
| description of cranial meninges | three connective tissue layers, separate and support soft tissue of brain, enclose and protect blood vessels supplying the brain, help contain and circulate cerebrospinal fluid |
| connective tissue layers (deep to superficial) | pia mater, arachnoid mater, dura mater |
| pia mater | innermost of cranial meninges, thin layer of areolar connective tissue, tightly adheres to brain, follows contours of brain surface |
| arachnoid mater | lies external to pia mater, partially composed of collagen and elastic fibers, extend through subarachnoid space, and has subdural space above this layer |
| arachnoid trabeculae | arachnoid mater composed of collagen and elastic fibers and support cerebral arteries and veins |
| subarachnoid space | contains cerebrospinal fluid |
| subdural space | potential space between arachnoid and overlying dura mater, becomes actual space if blood or fluid accumulates there (subdermal hematoma) |
| dura mater | lies external to arachnoid mater, tough dense, irregular connective tissue that has two layers |
| two layers of dura mater | meningeal layer, periosteal layer |
| meningeal layer | immediately superficial to arachnoid |
| periosteal layer | more superficial layer, forms the periosteum on internal surface of cranial bones |
| epidural space | potential space between the dura mater and bones of the skull, contains arteries and veins nourishing meninges and cranium, becomes real space if blood or fluid accumulates |
| ventricles | cavities within the brain (spatious), derived from neural canal, lined with ependymal cells, contain cerebrospinal fluid, share communications with each other, communication with spinal cord's central canal |
| four ventricles | two lateral ventricles, third and fourth ventricle |
| two lateral ventricles | in cerebrum |
| third ventricle | within diencephalon, small, thinner than lateral ventricles, and communicate with each lateral ventricle |
| fourth ventricle | located between pons and cerebellum |
| cerebrospinal fluid | clear, colorless liquid that circulates in ventricles and subarachnoid space and bathes and completely surrounds surfaces of CNS |
| cerebrospinal fluid functions | buoyancy, protection, and environmental stability |
| buoyancy from CF | brain floating here and reduces weight by 95% and prevents collapse of brain through foramen magnum |
| protection from CF | provides liquid cushion, protects delicate neural structures from sudden movements |
| environmental stability from CF | transports nutrients and chemical messengers to brain, removes waste products (to venous circulation), protects tissue from chemical fluctuations |
| blood-brain barrier (BBB) | strictly regulates which substances enter brain's interstitial fluid, helps prevent neuron exposure to harmful substances (i.e. drugs, blood waste products, variations in levels of normal substances (ions, hormones)), & astrocytes are the "gatekeepers" |
| astrocyte | "gatekeepers" controlling materials leaving neurons |
| barrier not absolute | lipid-soluble compounds (i.e. nicotine, alcohol, some anesthetics, and other substances that can diffuse across endothelial plasma membranes) and drugs (i.e. cocaine) can pass through |
| cerebrum | origin of all complex intellectual functions, two large hemispheres on superior aspect of brain |
| cerebrum is the center of... | intelligence and reasoning, thought, memory, and judgment, and voluntary motor, visual and auditory activities |
| cerebrum composition | two halves (L and R cerebral hemispheres), separated by deep cleft (longitudinal fissure, hemispheres are separate, except at a few locations (bundles of axons, tracts, and form white matter connecting regions) |
| largest tract | corpus callosum |
| corpus callosum | provides main method of communication between hemispheres |
| cerebrum characteristics | usually difficult to assign precise function to specific region, innervation, and functional differences exist between hemispheres (i.e. region of brain responsible for speech in left cerebral hemisphere - primarily affects higher-order function) |
| usually difficult to assign precise function to specific region of cerebrum because | overlap and indistinct boundaries and some aspects are not easily assigned to any single region (i.e. memory) |
| innervation of the cerebrum | involves the hemispheres receiving information from opposite sides of the body and hemispheres projecting motor commands to opposite sides of the body (i.e. right cerebral hemisphere controlling the left side of the body) |
| cerebral lateralization | functional differences between hemispheres |
| five lobes | four visible on external surface and named for overlying cranial bones each with specific cortical regions and association areas |
| names of the five lobes | frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital (overly the bones) and insula (not visible at the surface) |
| frontal lobe | deep to frontal lobe, forms anterior part of cerebral hemisphere, ends posteriorly at deep groove (central sulcus) and ends inferiorly at groove (lateral sulcus) |
| primary functions of frontal lobe | voluntary motor function, concentration and verbal communication, decision making, planning and personality |
| parietal lobe | deep to parietal bone, forms superioposterior part of cerebral hemisphere, terminates anteriorly at central sulcus, posteriorly at parieto-occipital sulcus, and laterally at lateral sulcus |
| postcentral gyrus | mass of nervous tissue posterior to central sulcus |
| primary functions of parietal lobe | general sensory functions (i.e. evaluating shape and texture of objects) |
| temporal lobe | internal to temporal bone, inferior to lateral sulcus, and involved with hearing and smell |
| occipital lobe | internal to occipital bone, forms posterior part of cerebral hemisphere, responsible for processing visual information and storing visual memories |
| insula | small lobe deep to lateral sulcus, can be observed by laterally pulling aside temporal lobe, involved in memory and interpretation of taste |
| structure and function of cerebrum | specific structural areas have distinct motor and sensory functions, higher mental functions dispersed over large areas |
| three categories of functional areas of the cerebrum | motor areas, sensory areas, and association areas |
| motor areas | control voluntary motor function, housed within frontal lobes and includes primary motor cortex, motor speech area, and frontal eye field |
| primary motor cortex | located in precentral gyrus of lobe, controls voluntary skeletal muscle activity, projects contralaterally (opposite side) within brainstem or spinal cord (i.e. left primary motor cortex controlling right-side voluntary muscles) |
| primary motor cortex distribution | can be diagrammed as motor homunculus |
| motor homunculus | displays distorted proportions of the body, reflects amount of cortex reflected to each part (i.e. hands large on the homoculus performed detailed, precise movement and more motor activity devoted to human hand than in other animals) |
| motor speech area (aka Broca area) | located in inferolateral portion of left frontal lobe (in most people) and controls muscular movement for vocalization |
| frontal eye field | on superior of middle frontal gyrus, regulates eye movements needed for reading and binocular vision |
| primary somatosensory cortex | housed within postcentral gyrus of parietal lobes, receives somatic sensory information from: proprioreceptors, touch, pressure, pain, and temperature receptors |
| sensory homunculus | can be traced on postcentral gyrus, indicates amount of sensory information collected within the region, large region for lips, fingers, and genital regions |
| sensory areas | primary somatosensory cortex, primary visual cortex, primary auditory cortex, primary olfactory cortex, and primary gustatory cortex |
| primary visual cortex | located within occipital lobe, receives and processes incoming visual information |
| primary auditory cortex | located within temporal lobe and receives and processes auditory information |
| primary olfactory cortex | located within temporal lobe, provides conscious awareness of smell |
| primary gustatory cortex | located within insula, and involved in processing taste information |
| association areas | premotor cortex, somatosensory association areas, visual association areas, auditory association area, functional brain regions, Wernicke areas, and gnostic area |
| association areas | connected to adjacent motor and sensory regions, process and interpret data or coordinate motor response, integrate new sensory inputs with memories |
| premotor cortex | within frontal lobe anterior to precentral gyrus, responsible for coordinating skilled motor activities (i.e. playing the piano) |
| somatosensory association area | within parietal lobe posterior to primary somatosensory complex, integrates sensory information, determines texture, temperature, pressure, and shape of objects, allows us to identify known objections without seeing them |
| visual association area | within occipital lobe, surround primary visual area, helps process visual information, helps us identify things we see (i.e. helps integrate visual information into recognizable face) |
| auditory association area | within temporal lobe, posterioinferior to primary auditory complex, interprets characteristics of sound, stores memories of sound heard in the past |
| functional brain regions | multi-association area between lobes, integrates information from individual association areas |
| Wernicke area | typically located only in left hemisphere, involved in recognizing, understanding, and comprehending spoken and written language, works with motor speech area for fluent communication |
| gnostic area | composed of regions of parietal, occipital and temporal, integrates somatosensory, visual, and auditory information of association areas, provides comprehensive understanding of current activity |
| diencephalon composition | epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus |
| diencephalon function | provides the relay and switching centers for sensory and motor pathway and control of visceral activities |
| epithalamus | partially forms posterior roof of diencephalon, covers the third ventricle, and is the posterior portion |
| epithalamus composed of | pineal gland and habenular nuclei |
| pineal gland | endocrine gland secreting melatonin, helps regulate day-night cycles |
| cicadian rhythm | day-night cycles |
| habenular nuclei | helps relay signals from limbic system to midbrain, involved in visceral and emotional responses to odors |
| thalamus | paired oval masses of gray matter, on lateral walls of third ventricle, located between anterior commisure and pineal gland (middle region of diencephalon) |
| thalamus functions | principal and final relay point for incoming sensory information, receives impulses from all conscious senses except olfaction, processed and projected to primary somatosensory cortex, and information filter (i.e. filters out sounds in busy cafe) |
| hypothalamus | anteriorinferior region of the diencephalon |
| hypothalamus component | infundibulum |
| infundibulum | thin stalk extending inferiorly from hypothalamus, attaches to pituitary gland |
| functions of hypothalamus | master control of the autonomic nervous system (i.e. influence heart rate, blood pressure), master control of endocrine system, regulation of body temperature (located at center of limbic system) |
| functions of hypothalamus cont. | control of food and water intake (produces hunger & thirst sensations), regulation of sleep-wake rhythms (directs pineal gland to secrete melatonin) |
| brainstem | connects cerebrum, diencephalon, and cerebellum to spinal cord, bidirectional passageway, contains many autonomic centers and reflex centers, houses nuclei of many cranial nerves |
| from superior to inferior sections of brainstem | midbrain (just superior to pons), pons, and medulla oblongata |
| midbrain function | vision, hearing, eye movement, body movement |
| pons function | relays sensory info between cerebrum and cerebellum |
| medulla function | controls autonomic functions, relays nerve signals between brain and spinal cord |
| cerebellum | second largest part of the brain, produces fine control over muscular actions, stores memories of movement patters (i.e. playing piano), and balance, coordination, proprioreception, and motor control |
| cerebellar functions | coordinates and "fine-tunes" skeletal muscle movements (ensures skeletal muscles follow correct pattern, stores memories of previously learned movements, ensures smooth movements), helps maintain equilibrium and posture |
| cerebellar functions cont. | receives proprioreceptive information from muscles and joints (helps maintain awareness of body's position & muscle tone & uses information to regulate body's position), continuously receives input from sensory & motor pathways, monitors muscular activity |
Created by:
Nicolekr
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