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Chapter 9,10,11
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Columns | organization of white matter in the spinal cord |
| Arachnoid Villi | absorb cerebrospinal fluid |
| Cauda Equina | extension of nerves beyond the end of the spinal cord |
| Gyri | folds of the cerebral cortex |
| Posterior (dorsal) root | contains the sensory axons of a spinal nerve |
| Anterior (ventral) root | contains the motor axons of a spinal nerve |
| Longitudinal fissure | seperates the cerebrum into right and left halfs |
| Anterior median fissure | divides spinal cord into right and left sides |
| Ventricles | brain cavities where CSF circulates |
| Sulci | shallow grooves in the cerebrum |
| Central canal | contains CSF in the spinal cord |
| Nerve | the portion of a neuron containing the nucleus |
| Synaptic End Bulb | rounded structure at the distal end of an axon terminal |
| Dendrite | highly branched, input part of a neuron |
| Synaptic Vesicle | sac in which neurotransmitter is stored |
| Interneuron | neuron located entirely within the CNS |
| Axon | long, cylindrical process that conducts impulses toward another neuron |
| Schwann Cells | produces myelin sheath in PNS |
| Node of Ranvier | unmyelinated gap in the myelin sheath |
| Myelin Sheath | substance that increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction |
| Sensory Neuron | neuron that conveys information from a receptor to the CNS |
| Motor Neuron | neuron that conveys information from the CNS to an effector |
| Nerve | bundle of many axons in the PNS |
| Tract | bundle of many axons in the CNS |
| Ganglion | group of cell bodies in the PNS |
| Nucleus | group of cell bodies in the CNS |
| Neurotransmitter | substance used for communication at chemical synapses |
| Postganglionic neuron | cell body located in ganglion; unmyelinated axon extends to effector |
| Preganglionic Neuron | cell body lies inside the CNS; myelinated axon extends to ganglion |
| Prevertebral ganglia | their postganglionic axons innervate organs below the diaphragm |
| Sympathetic Trunk | their postganglionic axons supply organs above the diaphragm |
| Terminal ganglia | contain the cell bodies and dendrites of parasymapthetic postganglionic neurons |
| GABA | Inhibitory amino acids in the CNS |
| Nitric Oxide | A gaseous neurotransmitter that is not packaged into synaptic vesicles |
| Glutamate | excitatory amino acid in the CNS |
| Endorphines | body’s natural painkillers |
| Serotonin | helps regulate mood and sleep |
| Acetylcholine | neurotransmitter that activates skeletal muscle fibers |
| Brain | neurons enclosed within skull |
| spinal cord | connects to brain and enclosed within spinal cavity |
| nerves | bundles of many axons of neurons |
| ganglia | groups of neuron cell bodies located outside of brain and spinal cord |
| enteric plexuses | networks in digestive tract |
| sensory receptors | monitor changes in internal or external enviornments |
| sensory receptors and sensory nerves | carry info into brain and spinal cord |
| integration | info processing; analyzing and storing info to help lead appropriate responses |
| perception | awareness of sensory input |
| motor activity | efferent nerves; signals to muscles and glands (effectors) |
| Central Nervous System (CNS) | brain and spinal cord |
| Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) | all nervous system structures outside of the CNS |
| Neurons | can respond to stimuli and convert stimuli to electrical signals (nerve impulses) that travel along neurons |
| neuroglia cells | support, nourish, and protect neurons |
| Neuroglia is critical for | homeostasis of interstitial fluid around neurons |
| cell body | nucleus, cytoplasm with typical organelles |
| dendrites | highly branched structures that carry impulses to the cell body |
| axon | conducts away from cell body toward another neuron, muscle or glans (emerges at cone-shaped axon hillock) |
| Axon terminals | contain synaptic vesicles that can release neurotransmitters |
| multipolar | have several or many dendrites and one axon; most common type in brain and spinal cord |
| bipolar | have 1 dendrite and 1 axon; example in retina or eye and inner ear |
| unipolar | have fused dendrite and axon; sensory neurons of spinal nerves |
| sensory(afferent) | convey impulses into brain or spinal cord |
| motor (efferent) | convey impulses from brain or spinal cord out through the peripheral nervous system to effectors (muscles or glands) |
| Interneurons (association neurons) | most are within the central nervous system; transmit impulses between neurons, such as between sensory and motor neurons |
| Neuroglia | cells smaller but much more numerous than neurons; can multiply and divide and fill in brain areas |
| Gilomas | brain tumors derive from neuroglia |
| Neuroglia functions | don't conduct nerve impluses, do support, nourish, and protect neurons |
| Astrocytes | help form blood brain barrier |
| oligodendrocytes | produce myelin in CNS |
| microglia | protect CNS cells from diesease |
| ependymal cells | line ventricles of brain; form cerebrospinal fluid an circulate |
| schwann | produce myelin around PNS neurons; help to regenerate PNS axons |
| satellite cells | support neurons in PNA ganglia |
| Myelination | axons covered with a myelin sheath; many layers of lipid and protein: insulates neurons; increases speed of nerve conduction; appears white (in white matter) |
| Nodes of Ranvier | gaps in the myelin; are important for rapid signal conduction |
| Diseases that destroy myelin | multiple sclerosis, Tay-Sachs |
| white matter | primarily myelinated axons |
| gray matter | cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, axon terminals, neuroglia |
| Location of gray matter | brain |
| Location of white matter | spinal cord |
| Regeneration of PNS neurons | axons and dendrites in the PNS can be repaired if cell body is intact and schwann cells functional. these form a regeneration tube and grows axons or dendrites if scar tissue does not fill the tube |
| regeneration of CNS neurons | very limited even if cell body is intact; inhibited by neuroglia and by lack of fetal growth stimulators |
| CNS structures | brain, spinal cord |
| PNS structures | cranial nerves and branches, spinal nerves and branches, ganglia, sensory receptors |
| Somatic (SNS) | sensory neurons from head, body wall, limbs, special sense organs; motor neurons to skeletal muscle:voluntary |
| Autonomic (ANS) | sensory neurons from viscera; motor neurons to viscera (cardiac muscles, smooth muscle, glands): involuntary |
| sympathetic | fight or flight |
| parasympathetic | rest and digest |
| Enteric (ENS) | brain of the gut; sensory neurons monitor chemical changes ans stretching of GI wall, motor neurons regulate contractions, secretions and endocrine secretions (involuntary) |
| Action potentials | nerve impulses |
| Action potential requires | a membrane potential, ion channels |
| Membrane potential | a charge difference across cell membrane (polarization) |
| Ion channels | allow ions to move by diffusion from high to low concentration |
| leakage channels | allow ions to leak through membrane there are more K+ than for Na+ |
| gated channels | open and close on command, respond to changes in membrane so can generate and conduct action potentials |
| Resting membrane potential | typically -70mV; inside of membrane more negative than outside; caused by presence of ions |
| Resting membrane potential Inside | (more negative because cytosol has)-many ions (too large to leak out) : amino acids (in cellular proteins) and phosphates (as in ATP); K+ that easily leaks out through many K+ channels |
| Resting membrane potential outside | more positive because interstitial fluid has; few negative ions, Na+ that does not leak out of cell: few Na+ channels, membrane "pumps" that quickly pump out Na+ that does leak (diffuse) into cell |
| Action potential | series of events that activate cell membrane in neurons or muscle fiber |
| Action potential initial event (stimulus) is required | triggers resting membrane to become more permeable to Na+, causes enough Na+ to enter cell so that cell membrane reaches threshold, if so the following events occur: action potential which spreads along neuron or muscle fiber |
| depolarizing phase | na+ channels open -> as more Na+ enters cell, membrane potential rises and becomes positive (-70->0->+30MV) |
| repolarizing phase | K+ channels open -> as more K+ leave cell, membrane potential is returned to resting value (+30->0->-70mv) |
| usually depolarization and repolarization take how long? | 1 millisecond |
| Action potential recovery | levels of ions back to normal by action of Na+/K+ pump; refractory period (brief) even with adequate stimulus, cell cannot be activated |
| all or none principal | if a stimulus is strong enough to cause depolarization to threshold level, the impulse will travel the entire length of the neuron at a constant and maximum strength |
| nerve impulse conduction (propagation) | each section triggers the next locally as even more Na_ channels are opened (like row of dominos_) |
| continuous conduction | in unmyelinated fibers; slower form of conduction |
| saltatory conduction | in myelinated fibers; faster as impulses "leap" between nodes of ranvier |
| factors that increase rate of conduction | myelin, large diameter and warm nerve fibers |
| neurotransmitters | acetylcholine:common in PNS; amino acids; modified amino acids; neuropeptides such as endorphins; nitric oxide |
| endocrine system hormone | is a molecule released in one part of the body but regulates activity of cells in other parts; has a slower response than nervous system but effects last longer and are broader in influence |
| endocrine | ductless, diffuse into blood |
| hormones | long distance chemical signals that travel in the blood or lymph |
| endocrine glands include | pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pinael glands |
| not exclusively endocrine | hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries, testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart, adipose tissue, and placenta |
| hormone activity | hormones affect only specific target tissues with specific receptors |
| hormones in the blood | controlled by a feedback system; hormones are synthesized and released in response to stimuli |
| Hypothalamus is a | major link between nervous and endocrine system |
| pituitary attached to hypothalamus | anterior, and posterior |
| anterior pituitary | releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus control the release of hormones |
| anterior pituitary hormones that act on other endocrine systems is called | tropic hormones |
| Human growth hormone (hGH) or somatostatin | promote growth |
| hypersycretion in children and adults | children- gigantism acults- acromegaly |
| Hyposecretion in children | pituitary dwarfism |
| thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) or thyrotropin | stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones by thyroid |
| follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) | FSH stimulates gamete (egg or sperm) production |
| Luteinzing hormone (LH) | stimulates ovulation, promotes production of gonadal hormones |
| prolactin (PRL) | promotes milk secretion by mammary glands; suckling stimulates releasing hormone release and promotes continued production |
| adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or corticotropin | stimulates glucocorticoid secretion by adrenal cortex |
| posterior pituitary | does not synthesize hormones; stores and releases hormones made by the hypothalamus |
| oxytocin (OT) | stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth, triggers milk ejection in women producing milk, role in sexual arousal and orgasm in males and females |
| antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin | decrease urine production by casing the kidneys to return more water to the blood; decreases water lost through sweating; constricts arterioles which increases blood pressure (vasopressin), alcohol inhibits ADH release and causes copious urine output |
| ADH deficiency | diabetes insipidus; huge output of urine and intense thirst |
| thyroid gland | located inferior to larnyx; two lateral lobes connected by isthmus |
| thyroid hormones | throxine, triiodothyronine, calcitonin |
| calcitonin | lowers blood calcium lwevels by stimulating calcium uptake and incorporation into bone matrix; inhibits osteoclast activity; antahonist to parathyroid hormone; removal of thyroid does not affect calcium homeostasis |
| Imbalance of TH Hyposecretion in adults | hypothroidism |
| endemic goiter | due to lack of iodine |
| imbalance of TH hyposecretion in infants | cretinism (stunted physical and mental growth) |
| imbalances of TH hypersecretion | grave's diesease |
| parathyroid gland | 4-8 small glands embedded in the posterior of the thyroid |
| secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) | PTH is most important hormone in calcium homeostasis, stimulates osteoclasts to digest bone matrix; enhances reabsorption of calcium and secretion of phosphate by kidneys; promotes formation of the hormone calcitroil, the active form of Vitamin D |
| imbalances of PTH Hperparathyroidism | bone soften and deform |
| imbalances of PTH hypoparathyroidism | tetany- involuntary muscle contraction; respiratory paraylsis; death |
| adrenal glands | paired, pyramid shaped organs atop of kidneys |
| 2 regions of adrenal glands | medulla, cortex |
| adrenal medulla | part of sympathetic nervous system |
| epinephrine and nonrepinephrine | blood glucose levels rise, blood vessels constrict, heart beats faster, blood diverted to the brain heart and skeletal muscle |
| pancreatic islets | also called islets of langerhans; both exocrine and endocrine gland; triangular gland behind the stomach |
| Alpha | secrete glucagon |
| gylcogenolysis | breakdown of glycogen to glucose |
| gluconeogensis | synthesis of glucose |
| beta | secret insulin; inhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis |
| neuronal development | learning and memory |
| delta | secret somatostatin; inhibit both insulin and glucagon |
| F cells | secrete pancreatic polypeptide; inhibits somatostatin, gall bladder contraction ,and secretion of pancreatic digestive enzymes |
| Signs of diabetes mellitus | polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia |
| polyuria | huge urine output |
| polydipsia | excessive thirst |
| polyphagia | excessive hunger and food consumption |
| hyperinsulinism | excessive insulin secretion, results in hypoglycemia- disorentation, unconsciousness |
| pineal gland | small gland in the brain; secrete melatonin, derived from serotonin |
| melatonin may affect | timing of sexual maturation and puberty; day/night cycles (more released during darkness than light), physilogical process that show rhythmic variations |
| gonads produce | sex hormones |
| inhibin | inhibits FSH |
| relaxin | produced during pregnancy |
| estrogen and progesterone | maturation of female reprodictive organs; sexual characteristics; breast development and cyclic changes in uterine lining |
| placenta secretes | estrogen, progesterone, and human chorionic gonadotropin |
| testes | produce testosterone |
| gastronintestinal tract enteroendocrine cells | secretion stimulates liver and pancreas, gastrin stimulates release of Hydrochloric acis |
| thymus | located behind sternum and between the lungs |
| thymus produces | thymosin, thymic humoral factor (THF), thymic factor (TF), and thymopoietin |
| kidneys | production of red blood cells |
| skin | precursor of vitamin D |
| adipose tissue | leptin- appetite control , stimulates increased energy expenditure |
| spinal cord | located within the vertebral canal of the vertebral column; ranges from 42-45 cm in length, extends from brain to 3/4 down back |
| meninges | are three layers of connective tissue coverings that extend around the spinal cord and brain |
| Spinal cord parts | horns-gray tracts- white |
| white matter of spinal cord | consists of tracts that serve as highways for nerve impulse conduction |
| gray matter of spinal cord | recieves integrates incoming and outgoing information and is a site for integration of reflexes |
| reflex arc | the pathway followed by nerve imoulses |
| soinal nerves | named for the region from which they arise; 31 total pairs |
| regions of the brain | cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum |
| fissures | deep grooves divide the cerebrum into lobes |
| surface lobes of the cerebrum | frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe |
| somatic sensory area | receives impulses from the body's sensory receptors |
| primary motor area | sends impulses to skeletal muscles |
| broca's area | involved in out ability to speak |
| cerebral areas involved in special senses | gustatory, visual, auditory, and olfactory area |
| interpretation areas of the cerebrum | speech/language region, language comprehension region, general interpretation area |
| basal nuclei | internal islands of gray matter |
| white matter (layers of the cerebrum) | inner layer, myelinated |
| gray matter (layers of the cerebrum) | outer layer, composed mostly of neuron cell bodies |
| diencephalon | sits on top of the brain stem; enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres |
| Diencephalon is made of what three parts? | thalamus, hypothamalmus, epothamlamus |
| thalamus | the relay station for sensory impulses, transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and interpretaion |
| hypothalamus | under the thalamus, an important part of the limbic system |
| important autonomic nervous system center | helps regulate body temp, controls water balance, regulates metabolism, eating and drinking |
| limbic system | emotional brain |
| the pituitary gland is attached to the | hypothalamus |
| epithalamus | houses the pineal body |
| brain stem | attaches to the spinal cord |
| parts of the brain stem | midbrain, pons, medulla oblongota |
| midbrain | reflex centers for vision and hearing |
| pons | the bulging center part of the brain stem, includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing |
| medulla oblongota | the lowest part of the brain stem |
| medulla oblongota contains which control centers? | heart rate control, blood pressure regulation, breathing, swallowing, vomiting |
| Somatic nervous system SNS + ANS = ? | PNS |
| ANS | not under conscious control; regulated by hypothalamus, brainstem |
| the ANS supplies nerves to | viscera |
| smooth muscle | stomach, blood vessles |
| cardiac muscle | heart |
| glands | sweat and digestive glands |
| autonpmic nervous system | the involuntary branch of the nervous system; consists of only motor nerves |
| autonomic nervous system divided into what two divisions? | sympathetic, parasympathetic |
| somatic | one motor neuron; conscious; voluntary |
| somatic-skeletal muscle | effector organ |
| somatic- acetylcholine | neurotransmitter |
| autonomic | pre and postganglionic nerves, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands- effector organs, acetylcholine, epinephrine, or nonrepinephrine- neurotransmitter, Unconscious, involuntary |
| sympathetic | fight or flight |
| Sympathetic "E" division | exercise, excitement, emergency, embarrassment |
| parasympathetic | housekeeping activities; conserves energy |
| Parasympatheic "D" division | digestion, defecation, and diuresis |
| (rest-and-digest activites) SLUDD | salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion, defaction |
| blood brain barrier | includes the least permeable capillaries of the body; excludes many potentially harmful substances |
| blood brain barrier useless against | fats and fat soluble molecules, respiratory gases, alcohol, nicotine, anesthesia |
| concussion | slight brain injury, no permanent brain damage |
| contusion | nervous tissue destruction occurs, tissue does not regenerate |
| cerebral edema | swelling from inflammatory response; may compress and kill brain tissue |
| from early adulthood through old age | decline in brain mass, fewer synaptic contacts brain function, some decrease in brain function |
| rapid brain growth in first few years of life | increase in size of neurons and proliferation of neuroglia, increase in development of denderitic branches and synaptic contracts |
| olfactory nerve | sensory for smell |
| optic nerve | sensory for vision |
| oculomotor nerve | motor fibers to eye muscles |
| trochlear | motor fiber to eye muscles |
| trigeminal nerve | sensory for the face; motor fibers to chewing muscles |
| abducens nerve | motor fibers to eye muscles |
| facial nerve | sensory for taste; motor fibers to the face |
| vestibulcochlear nerve | sensory for balance and hearing |
| glossopharyngeal nerve | sensory for taste; motor fibers to the pharyx |
| vagus nerves | sensory and motor fibers for pharynx, laryx, and viscera |
| accessory nerve | motor fibers to neck and upper back |
| hypoglossal nerve | motor fibers to tongue |
Created by:
bmsmcr
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