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DR-A&PCh2
Dragon Rises Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| matter | anything that has mass and volume |
| mass | amount of matter in a body. stays constant. |
| weight | force of gravity on matter. not constant. |
| chemistry | science of the structure and the interactions of matter. |
| 3 states of matter | solid, liquid, gas |
| chemical elements | all forms of matter are made up of these |
| element | simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties |
| an element... | cannot be split into a simpler form by ordinary chemical reactions |
| elements that make up 99% of human body mass | Oxygen (65%), Carbon (18%), Hydrogen (10%), Nitrogen (3%), Calcium (1.5%), Phosphorous (1.0%) |
| Major elements for biological life | O(xygen), C(arbon), N(itrogen), H(ydrogen) |
| Minor elements for biological (about 3.8%) | Ca, P, K, S, Na, Cl, Fe, Mg |
| atom | smallest indivisible unit of an element that can have an independent existence |
| nucleus | center of the atom - made up of protons and neutrons |
| protons | single positive charge, 1 atomic mass unit (amu) |
| neutron | no charge, mass = 1amu |
| electron | single negative charge, very low mass. found in concentric clouds surrounding the nucleus. determine the chemical properties of an atom. |
| an atom is electrically neutral because of... | the number of electrons being equal to the number of protons |
| the number of electrons available in the first energy level of an atom | 2 |
| the number of electrons available in the second energy level of an atom | 8 |
| the number of electrons available in the third energy level of an atom | 8 |
| the number of electrons available in the fourth energy level of an atom | 18 |
| the number of electrons in H(ydrogen)'s valence shell | 1 |
| a valence shell that is filled with it's maximum number of electrons | is stable, rarely forms compounds |
| a valence shell that is missing a number of electrons in its valence shell | is unstable, and likely to form compounds |
| atomic number | number of protons in the nucleus of an atom |
| mass number | the number of protons and neutrons in an atom |
| atomic mass (atomic weight) | sum of the weights of an atom's protons and neutrons |
| isotope | varieties of an element that have the same number of protons (same atomic number) but differ in the number of neutrons and therefore in atomic mass/weight |
| isotopes of an element are chemically... | similar, having the same number of valence electrons |
| all isotopes of an element... | have the same chemical properties |
| nuclei decay | occurs in unstable isotopes, resulting in stable states for the atom - as decay occurs, radiation is emitted |
| radioisotopes | unstable isotopes that give off radiation - every element has at least one radioisotope |
| radioactivity | radioisotopes decay to stable isotopes releasing radiation; we are all mildly radioactive |
| physical half-life of radioisotopes | time needed for 50% to decay into a more stable state; nuclear power plants create radioisotopes |
| biological half-life of radioisotopes | time required for 50% to disappear from the body; decay and physiological clearance |
| high-energy radiation | ejects electrons from atoms and converts atoms into ions. is deadly in high doses, and mutagenic and carcinogenic in low doses. |
| high-energy radiation does this to human tissue... | destroys molecules and produces dangerous free radicals and ions |
| sources of radiation include | UV light, X-rays, nuclear decay (alpha, beta, and gamma waves) |
| alpha particles | are dangerous if inside the body - 2 protons and 2 neutrons, cannot penetrate the skin |
| beta particles | dangerous if inside the body - have a free electron, can penetrate the skin by a few millimeters |
| gamma particles | are emitted from uranium and plutonium - are penetrating, very dangerous gamma rays |
| sieverts (Sv) | unit of radiation exposure - 5 Sv or more is usually fatal |
| harmful radiation effects | Acute or prolonged chronic dose: results in radiation sickness. Acute radiation dose: large dose (10 rad or greater, to the whole body) delivered during a short period of time |
| harmful radiation effects | Genetic effects appear in future generations of exposed person as a result of radiation damage to reproductive cells |
| harmful radiation effects | UV radiation on skin |
| beneficial radiation effects | radiation therapy; tracers like iodine for thyroid therapy and thallium for blood flow in stress tests |
| molecules | chemical particles composed of two ore more atoms from the same or different elements held together by chemical bonds |
| compounds | a molecule composed of two ore more different elements. can be broken down into components by chemical means |
| molecular formula | identifies constituent elements and how many atoms of each are present |
| structural formula | location of each atom, reveals structural isomers |
| molecular weight of a compound | is the sum of atomic weights of atoms |
| chemical reactions... | transform matter |
| atoms react with other atoms through chemical bonding, which occurs between atoms when... | there are vacancies in their valence (outermost) electron shell. |
| a chemical bond | is an electrostatic attractive force that holds atoms together or attracts one molecule to another in a chemical reaction |
| valence electrons | are responsible for holding two ore more atoms together in a chemical bond by SHARING or TRANSFERRING valence electrons. |
| electronegativity of an atom | the tendency of an atom to acquire electrons |
| ionic bond | relatively weak attraction between an anion and a cation. easily disrupted in water, as when salt dissolves |
| covalent bond | sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between nuclei |
| single covalent bond | sharing of one electron pair |
| double covalent | sharing of two electron pairs. often occurs between carbon atoms, between carbon and oxygen, and between carbon and nitrogen. |
| nonpolar covalent | covalent bond in which electrons are equally attracted to both nuclei. may be single or double. strongest type of chemical bond. |
| polar covalent | covalent bond in which electrons are more attracted to one nucleus than the other, resulting in slightly positive and negative regions in one molecule. may be single or double. |
| hydrogen bond | weak attraction between polarized molecules or between polarized regions of the same molecule. Important in the three-dimensional folding and coiling of large molecules. Easily disrupted by temperature and pH changes. |
| Van der Waals force | Weak, brief attraction due to random disturbances in the electron clouds of adjacent atoms. Weakest of all bonds. |
| ions and polar covalent molecules... | have + or - charge and so dissolve easily in water. |
| covalent bond | occurs when atoms share electrons in an effort to fill their valence shells. No donating / losing of electrons (AKA oxidation and reduction). |
| the strongest of all chemical bonds | covalent bond |
| bond that most commonly occurs when two ore more non-metals bond | covalent bond |
| atoms in compound... | have a similar tendency for electrons |
| bonds that are found in biological molecules | covalent bond - crucial for life - found in water molecules |
| weakest of bond types, 'transient' bonds | hydrogen bonds |
| hydrogen bonds | form between slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom in another |
| hydrogen bonds between different water molecules... | will form between a hydrogen atom of one water molecule and an unshared oxygen electron of a neighboring water molecule |
| hydrogen bonds play an important role in physiology via these structures: | protein structures, DNA structure |
| bonds within a water molecule | polar covalent bond (O partial -, H partial +) |
| bonds between different water molecules | hydrogen bond |
| ions | charged particles with unequal number of protons and electrons |
| tend to give up electrons... | elements with one to three valence electrons |
| tend to gain electrons... | elements with four to seven valence electrons |
| ionization | transfer of electrons from one atom to another (increasing the stability of the valence shell) |
| an ionic bond forms... | between metals (left stair of periodic table) and non-metals (right stair of periodic table) |
| ionic bonds produce... | ionic compounds |
| anion | atom that gains electrons, producing a net negative charge |
| cation | atom that loses electrons, producing a net positive charge |
| ions with opposite charges | attract one another |
| ions with like charges | repel each other |
| ionic compounds in solution... | easily conduct electricity |
| ionic compounds tend to form... | crystalline solids with high melting temperatures |
| ionic compounds dissolve easily... | in water and other polar solvents |
| most abundant extracellular anion | Chlorine (Cl-) |
| most abundant intracellular anion | proteins and phosphates |
| most abundant extracellular cation | sodium (Na+) |
| most abundant intracellular cation | potassium (K+) |
| electrolytes | salts that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting an electric current |
| electrolytes are important for... | chemical reactivity; osmitic effects (influence water movement); electrical effects on nerve and muscle tissue |
| electrolyte balance... | is one of the most important considerations in patient care |
| examples of the effects of electrolyte imbalances | muscle cramps, brittle bones, coma, cardiac arrest |
| free radicals | atoms or groups of atoms with unpaired (odd number) electrons in the outermost orbital. Formed when weak bonds split forming unstable atoms. |
| free radicals are produced by... | the effects of environment (radiation, pollution ,etc), normal metabolism, the body's immune system |
| ways in which free radicals cause tissue damage | they can react with important cellular components such as DNA or the cell membrane - cells may function poorly or die due to reaction. can cause cancer, death of heart tissue, and aging. |
| antioxidants | donate electrons to free radicals in order to neutralize their effects |
| common antioxidants in diet | selenium, vitamin E, vitamin C, carotenoids |
| energy | the capacity to do work, to move something. all body activities are a form of work. |
| potential energy | energy stored in an object because of its position or internal state. not doing work at the time. |
| chemical energy | potential energy stored in the bonds of molecules |
| free energy | potential energy available in a system to do useful work |
| kinetic energy | energy in motion, energy actively doing work |
| heat | kinetic energy of molecular motion |
| electromagnetic energy | kinetic energy of moving packets of radiation called photons |
| common unit: calorie (cal) | amount of heat needed to raise 1 gm of water by 1 degree C |
| common unit: SI unit for energy: | joule |
| 1 cal = ? joules | 4.184 joules |
| conservation of energy (1st law of thermodynamics) | Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be converted from one form to another |
| the total amount of energy at the end of a reaction... | is the same as the amount at beginning of reaction |
| chemical energy in food is changed to various forms... | but the total stays the same |
| entropy (2nd law of thermodynamics) | energy transfer will always result in a greater amount of disorder in the universe |
| movement toward disorder... | is a spontaneous process |
| measure of disorder is... | entropy - greater disorder = greater entropy |
| chemical reaction | process in which covalent or ionic bonds are formed ore broken |
| chemical equation | symbolizes the course of a chemical reaction. reactants on the left -> products on the right. |
| classes of chemical reactions are: | decomposition reactions, synthesis reactions, exchange reactions |
| decomposition reactions | breakdown of complex molecules (eg carbohydrates, fats, proteins) to simpler ones. ex: AB -> A + B. Energy is released as ATP and used in anabolic reactions. |
| synthesis reactions | two ore more small molecules combine to form a larger one (eg proteins from amino acids, glycogen from glucose). A + B -> AB. Energy for synthesis is derived from catabolic reactions. |
| exchange reactions | two molecules exchange atoms or groups of atoms. partly synthesis and partly decomposition. AB+CD -> ABCD -> AC+BD |
| reversible reactions | can go in either direction under different circumstances, symbolized with double-headed arrow in a chemical equation. Occurs in respiratory, urinary, and digestive physiology. |
| oxidation rnx | loss of electrons |
| reduction rnx | gain of electrons |
| oxidation | any chemical reaction in which a molecule gives up electrons and releases energy; the molecule is oxidized in the process |
| oxidizing agent | the electron acceptor molecule in an oxidation reaction. oxygen is often involved as the electron acceptor. |
| reduction | any chemical reaction in which a molecule gains electrons and energy; the molecule is reduced when it accepts electrons |
| reducing agent | molecule that donates electrons in an oxidation/reduction reaction |
| redox reaction | oxidation/reduction reaction |
| the oxidation of one molecule... | is always accompanied by the reduction of another |
| in redox reactions, electrons are often transferred... | as hydrogen atoms |
| molecular motion and collision | basis for chemical reactions |
| reactions occur when... | molecules collide with enough force and the correct orientation |
| molecular reaction rates are affected by... | concentration, temperature, catalysts, state of molecules, pressure |
| when reactants are more concentrated... | reaction rates increase |
| when the temperature rises... | reaction rates increase |
| catalysts | substances that temporarily bond to reactants, hold them in favorable position to react with each other. may change the shape of reactants in ways that make them more likely to react. |
| catalysts speed up reactions... | without permanent change to themselves |
| catalysts hold reactant molecules... | in correct orientation for reaction |
| catalysts are not... | permanently consumed or changed by the reaction |
| enzymes... | are the most important biological catalysts |
| metabolic pathways | are chains of reactions with each step usually catalyzed by a different enzyme |
| terms relevant to metabolic pathway reactions | initial reactant, intermediates, end product |
| regulation of metabolic pathways | activation or deactivation of the enzymes |
| cell activity in the regulation of metabolic pathways | cells can turn on or off pathways when end products are needed and shut them down when end products are not needed |
| an enzyme is defined as... | a protein catalyst |
| an enzyme... | controls chemical reactions |
| an enzyme... | lowers activation energy and increases speed of reactions in cells without themselves being changed |
| an enzyme... | has action on a specific substrate or raw material |
| a substrate... | binds to an active site on an enzyme molecule |
| the binding of a substrate to an active site on an enzyme molecule forms... | an enzyme-substrate complex - highly specific fit, a "lock and key" |
| an enzyme (in the enzyme-substrate specificity)... | breaks covalent bonds between monomers in substrate |
| activation energy | minimum energy from outside source required before a reaction can occur |
| examples of non-protein cofactors | iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, calcium ions (all inorganic) |
| nonprotein cofactors are required by... | about 2/3rds of human enzymes |
| certain cofactors bind to an enzyme... | and induce a change in its shape, which activates the active site |
| cofactors are... | essential to function |
| coenzymes | assist enzyme function |
| coenzymes are organic cofactors derived from... | water-soluble vitamins of B complex |
| metabolism | all the chemical reactions of the body |
| catabolism | energy-releasing (exergonic) decomposition reactions |
| anabolism | energy-storing (endergonic) synthesis reactions |
| these reactions break covalent bonds | catabolic reactions |
| these reactions produce smaller molecules | catabolic reactions |
| these reactions release useful energy | catabolic reactions |
| these reactions require energy input | anabolic reactions |
| these reactions produce proteins or fats | anabolic reactions |
| these reactions are driven by the energy that catabolic reactions release | anabolic reactions |
| these two types of reactions are inseparably linked | anabolic and catabolic reactions |
| a synthesis reaction is an... | anabolic reaction |
| a decomposition reaction is a... | catabolic reaction |
| breaking down complex molecules into smaller ones... | releases energy, part of a catabolic or decomposition reaction |
| building complex molecules from simpler ones... | use energy, part of anabolic or synthesis reactions |
| energy is released from reactants during this type of reaction | catabolic/decomposition |
| energy is absorbed from reactants during this type of reaction | anabolic/synthesis |
| these types of reactions do not require energy so usually occur spontaneously | decomposition/catabolic |
| these types of reactions require energy and do not occur spontaneously | anabolic/synthetic |
| a decomposition or catabolic reaction is also known as an... | exergonic or exothermic reaction (releases energy) |
| an anabolic or synthesis reaction is also known as an... | endergonic or endothermic reaction (absorbs energy) |
| exergonic/exothermic reactions | often give off heat, which causes the product to feel hot |
| metabolic pathways ending in "lyses" | are catabolic - lyses means "to break down" |
| metabolic pathways ending in "genesis" | are anabolic - genesis means "to create" |
| glycogenolysis | glycogen breakdown |
| glycogenesis | glycogen synthesis |
| lipolyses | lipid breakdown |
| lipogenesis | fatty acid synthesis |
| glycolyses | glucose breakdown |
| glycogenesis | glucose synthesis |
| these compounds always contain carbon | organic compounds |
| these compounds always have covalent bonds | organic compounds |
| these compounds usually contain hydrogen | organic compounds |
| these compounds make up about 38-43% of the human body | organic compounds |
| these compounds lack carbon | inorganic compounds |
| these compounds have simple structures | inorganic compounds |
| these compounds may have ionic or covalent bonds | inorganic compounds |
| these compounds make up about 60% of the body (mostly water) | inorganic compounds |
| examples of inorganic compounds | water, salts, acids, bases |
| the most abundant and important inorganic compound | water |
| the structure of water | polar covalent bonds and a V-shaped molecule - this structure gives water many properties that account for its ability to support life |
| properties of water that help it support life | solvency, cohesion, adhesion, chemical reactivity, thermal stability |
| the universal solvent | water |
| water is a universal solvent because... | it is able to dissolve the most solutes due to the polar covalent bond and the "bent" V shape |
| hydrophilic | substances that dissolve in water |
| ions and polar covalent bonds are... | hydrophilic. they dissolve easily in water (sugar, salt) |
| hydrophibic | substances that do not dissolve in water |
| molecules that are non-polar covalent or neutral are... | hydrophobic. examples are fats, oils, petroleum products. they are not water-soluble. |
| water cannot break down... | hydrophobic compounds. |
| virtually all metabolic reactions depend on... | the solvency of water |
| water has a high degree of adhesion... | because of the polar nature tendency of one substance to cling to another |
| attraction of water to molecules of capillary... | causes the water to travel up |
| cohesion is... | the tendency of like molecules to cling to each other |
| hydrogen bonds make water... | very cohesive |
| water's cohesiveness... | enables water to form droplets |
| surface tension is a result of... | the strong cohesion between H of one molecule and the O of another (hydrogen bonds in water) |
| for water, chemical reactivity is... | the ability to participate and serve as medium for most chemical reactions (hydrolysis and synthesis/dehydration rnx) |
| water ionizes... | into H+ and OH- |
| water ionizes... | other chemicals (acids and salts) |
| water is involved in these kinds of reactions... | hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis |
| water is a... | lubricant. major component of mucus and other lubricants in the body (in joins, cavities, GI tract) |
| the internal temperature of the body... | is helped to be stabilized by water |
| inorganic compound in the body with a high heat capacity | water |
| water absorbs heat... | without changing temperature very much |
| hydrogen bonds inhibit temperature increases... | by inhibiting molecular motion |
| mixture | consists of substances physically blended but not chemically combined, and can be separated in a similar fashion |
| in our bodies, most mixtures... | consist of chemicals dissolved or suspended in water |
| solution | consists of particles of matter called the solute mixed with a more abundant substance (usually water) called the solvent |
| solute + solvent = | solution |
| a solute can be... | a gas, solid, or liquid |
| solutions are defined by these properties: | solute particles under 1nm; solute particles do not scatter light; will pass through most membranes; will not separate on standing |
| the most common colloids in the body... | are mixtures of protein and water |
| many colloids in the body... | can change from liquid to gel state within and between cells |
| colloids are defined by these properties: | particles range from 1-100nm in size; scatter light and are usually cloudy; particles are too large to pass through semipermeable membrane; particles remain permanently mixed with the solvent when mixture stands |
| suspensions are defined by these properties: | particles exceed 100nm; too large to penetrate selectively permeable membranes; cloudy or opaque in appearance; separates on standing. |
| an emulsion... | is a suspension of one liquid in another. ex: fat in breast milk. |
| electrolytes | inorganic substances that form ions when dissolved in water, a process of separation known as ionization. |
| three types of electrolytes | acids, bases, salts |
| acid + base -> | salt + water |
| an acid produces... | H+ |
| a base absorbs... | H+ |
| a proton donor | acid. releases H+ ions in water. |
| a proton acceptor | base. accepts H+ ions, and re-releases OH- in water. |
| pH is a measure derived from... | the molarity of H+ (molarity deals with concentration per volume) |
| a pH of 7.0 | is neutral (H+ = OH-) |
| a pH of less than 7.0 | is acidic (H+ > OH-) |
| a pH of greater than 7.0 | is basic (H+ < OH-) |
| pH is a measurement of molarity of H+ on a... | logarithmic scale |
| a change of one number on the pH scale... | represents a 10-fold change in H+ concentration |
| a solution with pH of 4.0 compared to 5.0 | is 10 times as acidic |
| a corrosive burn of the skin with a sour taste is characteristic of an | acid |
| a low pH is characteristic of an | acid |
| turns blue litmus paper red | acid |
| reacts with carbonates to form carbon dioxide, water, and a salt | acid |
| examples of acids | vinegar, aspirin, lemon juice |
| corrosive with a soapy feel is characteristic of a | base |
| a pH greater than 7 describes a | base |
| turns red litmus paper blue | base |
| salts are composed... | of cations (+ ions) and anions (- ions) |
| an acid plus a base yields | water and salt |
| the pH of a solution may be... | acidic, basic, or neutral |
| these solutions conduct electric current | fused salts and aqueous salts solutions |
| many essential chemical elements in ICF and ECF are provided by | ions (ex: Na+ and K+) |
| pH of blood ranges from | 7.35 to 7.45 |
| deviations from 7.35 to 7.45 blood pH lead to... | tremors, paralysis, and even death |
| the body uses buffers to resist... | changes in pH |
| slight pH disturbances can... | disrupt physiological functions and alter drug reactions |
| buffer systems in the body... | ensure pH of fluids inside and outside the cells remains almost constant |
| buffers are chemicals that... | replace strong acids or bases with weak ones (carbonic acid - bicarbonate buffer system) |
| organic chemistry | the study of compounds containing carbon |
| carbon backbones | formed by carbon atoms which bind readily with each other |
| four categories of carbon compounds | carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleotides and nucleic acids |
| attach to a carbon backbone | functional groups - small clusters of atoms |
| functional groups | determine many of the properties of organic molecules |
| the function of each macromolecule is due to its | chemical formula; the shape of the molecule |
| hydroxyl occurs in | sugars, alcohols |
| methyl occurs in | fats, oils, steroids, amino acids |
| carboxyl occurs in | amino acids, sugars, proteins |
| amino occurs in | amino acids, proteins |
| phosphate occurs in | nucleic acids, ATP |
| macromolecule | very large organic molecule, very high molecular weights |
| examples of macromolecules | proteins, DNA |
| polymers | molecules made of a repetitive series of identical or similar subunits (monomers) |
| starch | a polymer of about 3000 glucose monomers |
| monomer | identical or similar subunits |
| polymerization | joining monomers to form a polymer |
| dehydration synthesis (condensation) | the way living cells form polymers - produces water as a byproduct |
| hydrolysis | opposite of dehydration synthesis - a water molecule ionizes into OH- and H+ |
| dehydration synthesis reactions occur when... | monomers covalently bond together to form a polymer with the removal of a water molecule. A hydroxyl group is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen from the next. |
| hydrolysis reactions occur when... | a polymer is split (lysis) by the addition of a water molecule (hydro). This breaks a covalent bond in the polymer, H20 becomes H+ and OH-, and then joins the now-broken monomers as hydroxyl groups. |
| carbohydrates are... | hydrophilic organic molecules |
| all digested carbohydrates are... | converted to glucose. oxidized to make ATP. |
| carbohydrates have... | a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen |
| three important monosaccharides | glucose, galactose, fructose |
| formula for monosaccharides | C6H12O6 |
| monosaccharides are produced by... | digestion of complex carbohydrates |
| glucose is... | blood sugar |
| suffix OSE | some kind of sugar |
| disaccharide | sugar molecule composed of two monosaccharides |
| three important disaccharides | sucrose (table sugar), lactose (sugar in milk), maltose (grain products) |
| sucrose | table sugar: glucose + fructose |
| lactose | sugar in milk: glucose + galactose |
| maltose | grain products: glucose + glucose |
| oligosaccharides | short chains of three or more monosaccharides |
| polysaccharides | long chains of monosaccharides (at least 50) |
| three polysaccharides of interest in humans | glycogen, starch, cellulose |
| starch | energy storage, polysaccharide in plants - only significant digestible polysaccharide in the human diet |
| cellulose | structural molecule of plant cell walls - fiber in the diet |
| glycogen | energy storage polysaccharide in animals |
| glycogen is made by... | cells of liver, muscles, brain, uterus, and vagina |
| with regard to glycogen, the liver... | produces glycogen after a meal when glucose levels are high, then breaks glycogen down in between meals to maintain blood glucose levels |
| muscles store glycogen... | for their own energy needs |
| the uterus uses glycogen... | to nourish the embryo |
| glycoprotein | component of the cell surface coat and mucus, among other roles |
| glycolipid | component of the cell surface coat |
| proteoglycan | cell adhesion; lubrication; supportive filler of some tissues and organs |
| a hydrophobic organic molecule | lipid |
| lipids are composed of... | carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen |
| lipids have a high ratio... | of hydrogen to oxygen |
| less O(xygen) in lipids means... | fewer polar covalent bonds, making most lipids insoluble in water |
| in lipids, being less oxidized than carbohydrates means... | there are more calories per gram available |
| five primary types of lipids in humans | fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, eicosanoids, steriods |
| triglycerides are | three fatty acids covalently bonded to three-carbon alcohol called glycerol |
| triglycerides, when liquid at room temperature | are called oils (often polyunsaturated fats from plants) |
| triglycerides, when solid at room temperature | are called fat (often saturated fats from animals) |
| primary function of triglycerides | energy storage, insulation, and shock absorption (adipose tissue) |
| chemical constitution of saturated fats | saturated - carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogen, meaning no C=C bonds |
| chemical constitution of unsaturated fats | contains C=C bonds without hydrogen |
| chemical constitution of polyunsaturated fats | contains many C=C bonds without hydrogen |
| essential fatty acids... | are obtained from the diet, the body cannot synthesize them |
| sources of saturated (C saturated with H, no C=C bonds) triglycerides | red meat, cheese, whole milk, cocoa butter, palm oil, coconut oil |
| at room temperature, saturated fats are usually | solid |
| saturated fats are associated with... | heart disease |
| unsaturated fats are sometimes considered... | good fats |
| unsaturated fats have at least one C=C bond, and so are not saturated with | Hydrogen |
| monounsaturated fats have... | one double covalent (C=C) bond. |
| examples of monounsaturated fats | olive oil, canola oil, peanut oil, avocado |
| polyunsaturated fats have... | more than one double covalent (C=C) bond |
| sources of polyunsaturated fats | fish, cottonseed, corn oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, omega-3 and omega-6 oils. essential but must come from food or supplements. |
| trans fats | manufactured fats that turn from liquid to solid when hydrogen is added to heated unsaturated fat |
| trans fats resist... | enzymatic breakdown in the human body, remain in circulation longer, and deposit in the arteries |
| phospholipids are similar to neutral fat except that... | one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group |
| phospholipids are the structural foundation of... | cell membrane |
| phospholipids are amphiphilic, meaning | fatty acid "tails" are hydrophobic, but phosphate heads are hydrophilic |
| eicosanoids | 20 carbon compounds derived from a fatty acid called arachidonic acid |
| eicosanoids are involved with... | hormone-like chemical signals between cells |
| eicosanoids include... | prostaglandins, produced in all tissues |
| the eicosanoid prostaglandin has a role in... | inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contractions, and blood vessel diameter |
| steroid | a lipid with 17 of its carbon atoms in four rings |
| cholesterol | the 'parent' steroid from which other steroids are synthesized |
| examples of steroids synthesized from cholesterol | cortisol, progesterone, estrogen, testosterone, and bile acids |
| cholesterol is synthesized... | only by animals |
| the organ that especially synthesizes cholesterol | liver |
| percentage of cholesterol gotten from diet | 15% |
| percentage of cholesterol internally synthesized | 85% |
| a steroid required for proper nervous system function | cholesterol |
| good and bad cholesterol refer to... | droplets of lipoprotein in the blood. these are complexes of cholesterol, fat, phospholipid, and protein. |
| HDL | high-density lipoprotein |
| LDL | low-density lipoprotein |
| high-density lipoprotein (HDL) | good cholesterol. lower ratio of lipid to protein. may help prevent cardiovascular disease. |
| low-density lipoprotein (LDL) | bad cholesterol. high ratio of lipid to protein. contributes to cardiovascular disease. |
| bile acids | steroids that aid fat digestion and nutrient absorption |
| cholesterol | component of cell membranes; precursor of other steroids |
| eicosanoids | chemical messengers between cells |
| fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) | involved in a variety of functions including blood clotting, wound healing, vision, and calcium absorption |
| phosophlipids | major component of cell membranes; aid in fat digestion |
| steroid hormones | chemical messengers between cells |
| triglycerides | energy storage; thermal insulation; filling space; binding organs together; cushioning organs |
| amino acids | all amino acids have in common an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH) attached to a central carbon |
| determines which amino acid | variable side chains |
| peptide bond | joins the amino group of one amino acid to the carboxyl group of the next |
| proteins are... | essential to structure and activities of life |
| protein makes up about... | 12-15% of the body mass of a lean adult |
| proteins contain these elements | C(arbon), H(ydrogen), O(xygen), N(itrogen) |
| proteins have varying degrees of polarity based on... | the amino acid composition |
| the number of amino acids used to make proteins | 20 |
| protein structure is based on... | the amino acid sequence |
| the sequence of amino acids determine | the shape of a protein |
| an example of the importance of the shape of a protein | sickle cell disease |
| primary structure of protein organization | unique sequence of amino acids |
| secondary structure of protein organization | folding of amino acids into the polypeptide chain |
| tertiary structure of protein organization | 3-D shape of polypeptide chain; determines protein function |
| quarternary structure of protein organization | more than one polypeptide chain |
| denaturation | proteins shape is sensitive to changes in temperature or acidity |
| protein unfolds | loss of 3D shape, rarely reversible |
| unraveled protein | is no longer functional |
| types of proteins | enzymes, hormones, transport, contractile, protective, structural, storage, toxins, communication |
| role of protein type: enzymes | quicken chemical reactions (ex: sucrase positions sucrose so it can be broken down into glucose and fructose) |
| role of protein type: hormones | chemical messengers (ex: growth hormone) |
| role of protein type: transport | move other molecules (ex: hemoglobin: transports oxygen through the blood) |
| role of protein type: contractile | movement (ex: myosin and actin: allow muscles to contract) |
| role of protein type: protective | healing; defense against invader (ex: fibrinogen: stops bleeding; antibodies: kill bacterial invaders) |
| role of protein type: structural | mechanical support (ex: keratin: hair, collagen: cartilage) |
| role of protein type: storage | stores nutrients (ex: ovalbumin: egg white, used as nutrient for embryos) |
| role of protein type: toxins | defense, predation (ex: bacterial diphtheria toxin) |
| role of protein type: communication | cell signaling (ex: glycoprotein: receptors on cell surface) |
| components of nucleotides | nitrogenous base, sugar, one or more phosphate group |
| nitrogenous base | single or double carbon-nitrogen ring |
| sugar (in nucleotides) | monosaccharide |
| examples of nucleotides | ATP, cGMP, cAMP |
| ATP | adenosine triphosphate |
| best-known nucleotide | ATP |
| ATP acts as... | the major energy currency of the cell |
| ATP briefly stores... | energy gained from exergonic reactions. |
| within seconds, ATP releases energy gained from exergonic reactions for... | physiological work |
| ATP releases energy to perform physiological work in the form of | synthesis of biomolecules |
| ATP releases energy to perform physiological work in the form of | active transport of molecules and ions |
| ATP releases energy to perform physiological work in the form of | nerve impulses |
| ATP releases energy to perform physiological work in the form of | maintenance of cell volume by osmosis |
| ATP releases energy to perform physiological work in the form of | muscle contraction |
| ATP releases energy to perform physiological work in the form of | beating of cilia and flagella (including sperm) |
| ATP releases energy to perform physiological work in the form of | phosphorylation to many protein to alter activity in cell signal |
| nucleic acids | polymers formed from nucleotides (monomers) through dehydration synthesis |
| two kinds of nucleic acid | DNA and RNA |
| DNA | deoxyribonucleic acid - inherited genetic material |
| RNA | ribonucleic acid - relays instructions from genes to gene product (protein) |
| nucleic acid are involved in the storage and flow of information from gene to gene product | both DNA and RNA |
| monomers making up nucleic acids | a phosphate, a sugar, and a base |
| both DNA and RNA have | pentose sugar - 5 carbon sugar attaches to one of four nitrogenous bases |
| both DNA and RNA have | phosphate groups that alternate with sugar to form the backbone |
| both DNA and RNA contain | four nitrogenous bases |
| double stranded nucleic acid | DNA |
| single stranded nucleic acid | RNA |
| DNA consists of... | two strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen bonds |
| the outer rails of the double helix in DNA are composed of... | sugar and phosphate components of the molecule |
| the rungs of the double helix of DNA consist of... | bases which are hydrogen-bonded together |
| DNA nitrogenous bases | adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G) |
| RNA nitrogenous bases | adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), and guanine (G) |
| the type of sugar found in DNA | deoxyribose sugar |
| the type of sugar found in RNA | ribose sugar |
Created by:
jcoletaylor
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