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Psych Fridlund
PSYCH FINAL FRIDLUUUUND
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| geons and "impossible figures" | -geons are the basic building blocks of all objects we recognize (we first recognize objects by recognizing their component geons) |
| -impossible figures are made by non-geon components | |
| the stroop effect and automatization | -tendency to read the words instead of saying the color of ink |
| change blindness | -the failure to detect changes in parts of a scene (while a movie is playing if they change what is on the people's plates you probably wont notice) |
| attentional blink | -during a brief time after perceiving one stimulus, it is difficult to attend to something else (you don't necessarily blink your eyes, but you "blink" your attention) |
| algorithms and heuristics | -algorithm- a mechanical, repetitive procedure for solving a problem or testing every hypothesis |
| -heuristics- strategies for simplifying a problem and generating a satisfactory guess (i.e. to choose oldest child, you choose the tallest) | |
| representativeness heuristic | -the assumption that an item that resembles members of some category is probably also in that category |
| base-rate information | -how common two categories are |
| -often overlooked when people apply the representativeness heuristic | |
| availability heuristic | -the tendency to assume that if we easily think of examples of a category, then that category must be common |
| -after a plane crash, people think flying is unsafe because it is very memorable | |
| overconfidence | -on hard problems, people are generally overconfident that their answers are correct (i.e. they have a correct range that the nile river is in between) |
| -on easy problems, they are often underconfident | |
| confirmation bias | -the tendency to accept a hypothesis and then look for evidence to support it instead of considering other possibilities |
| framing bias and "spin" | -framing bias- when the wording of a problem leads us to a decision |
| -"spin"- spinning facts makes people reframe their ideas towards a certain viewpoint | |
| mental rotation and map image-scanning studies | -when asked if two objects are the same (just rotated) or different, people make the judgements by imagining one of the forms spinning until the positions match |
| -subjects memorize map and had to "scan" from one point to another and judge distance | |
| prototype theory of meaning | -a mode of categorization where some members of a category are more central than other (this dog is more "dog-like" than the others) (this fruit is more "fruit-like" than the others) |
| spreading activation | -a method for searching networks.. activation thought and then you come to your final search by associating similar things? |
| natural selection | -the differential reproductive success of individuals within a population because of hereditary differences among them |
| -organisms with favorable characteristics reproduce more | |
| requirements for natural selection | -variability-differences among organisms/traits |
| -selection pressures | |
| -inheritance mechanism-use-inheritance (now we know it is genetics) | |
| vestigial structures and importance to darwin | -structures that are "left-over" from previous stages in evolution (pelvis bones in whales/snakes, wings in flightless birds, human appendix, etc) |
| taxis | -movement toward or against a simple stimulus |
| -phototaxis (light) | |
| -chemotaxis (chemicals) | |
| -geotaxis (geographic locations) | |
| fixed action patterns (model action patterns) and releasing stimuli | -an action that runs to completion and then may reset (example: the bird whose egg was taken, scooped it away always... when it was taken it would scoop air all the way back) |
| -triggered by "releasers" | |
| -yawning in humans | |
| -honeybee dance | |
| imprinting and critical (sensitive) periods | -triggered in critical periods (generally newborns/young) |
| -if a male robin doesn't hear the song of a mature robin during the critical period, it will not be imprinted and when he goes through puberty he will not sing like a mature robin | |
| -not for humans | |
| neoteny | -holding on to juvenile traits as an adult |
| -neoteny less in chimpanzees where their skull structure varies quite a bit from baby to adult | |
| vervet monkeys and calls | -vervet monkeys are chatterboxes and have a proto-language |
| -can communicate if an eagle is overhead they go under tree, if snake is near they go up tree, etc | |
| personal vs inclusive fitness | -personal fitness- direct reproductive prowess |
| -inclusive fitness- assistance of kin's reproduction, leads to cooperative behavior | |
| --"altruism"- genetic self-interested (like the turkeys who help their brothers attract a mate) | |
| equity theories or exchange | -social relationships are transactions in which partners exchange goods and services |
| -wealthy attractive people are more demanding in who they want a relationship with | |
| sexual dimorphism | -the systematic difference in form between individuals of different sex in the same species |
| -cause of means of structural or behavioral competition | |
| kinsey survey | -kinsey scale (0-6) from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual. |
| -not binary anymore, reconceptualized sexual orientation | |
| -46% males "reacted" sexually to both sexes | |
| -37% males had at least 1 homosexual experience | |
| -7% of females bisexual | |
| female choice in mating | -cryptic- female ovum rejects certain sperm.. genetic key doesn't match on cell membranes |
| -overt (incitement)- female choice.. female "i choose you" | |
| male displays resulting from sexual selection | -rams butt heads |
| -kangaroos box | |
| -birds sing songs and flash their feathers, etc | |
| sexual selection | -a type of natural selection in which members of one sex compete for reproductive access to members of the other sex |
| research on human imprinting | -there does not seem to be any sort of imprinting stage for humans |
| types of mating systems | -monogamy- pair-bonding |
| -polygamy- one animal has many mates | |
| --polyandry- one female mates w/ many males | |
| --polygyny- one male mates w/ many females | |
| -promiscuity- everyone mates w/ everyone | |
| -most mating systems are slight polygyny | |
| sexual orientation | -heterosexuality (90%+ of population) |
| -gay males (~4% of population) | |
| -lesbian females (~2% of population) | |
| -bisexual male and females | |
| possible determinants of sexual orientation | -females: higher exposure to prenatal androgens |
| --right hand 2 :4 finger lengths are lower (more like those of straight men) | |
| males: may be an X-linked trait that promotes fertility in females | |
| --older biological brother raises homosexual probability 33 | |
| "correlated variations" with sexual orientation | -2 :4 finger ratios (gay people have reversed ratios to straight counterparts) |
| -gay people 50% likelier to be left-handed | |
| -gay men likelier to have counter-clockwise hair pattern | |
| evolutionary explanations of altruism | -altruism- selfless concern for others. altruism makes sense for brothers to help each other, etc, so that their genes are passed along |
| rationale for sexual reproduction | -hedge against environmental change |
| -no current reason for humans.. | |
| -protection against pathogens (red queen hypothesis) | |
| evolutionary explanation of sex roles | -in most animal kingdom, females are much bigger than males |
| -one exception is in species w/ large brains (males compete for females) | |
| -females make larger parental investment per gamete | |
| james-lange theory of emotion | -interpretation of a stimulus evokes autonomic changes and sometimes muscle actions. perception of those changes is the feeling aspect of your emotion |
| cognitive (schachter-singer) theory of emotion | -the intensity of the physiological state -- the degree of sympathetic nervous system arousal -- determines the intensity of the emotion, but a cognitive appraisal of the situation identifies the type of emotion |
| how the polygraph works | -records indications of sympathetic nervous system arousal such as blood pressure, heart rate, breathing rate, and electrical conduction of the skin |
| -lie detector test | |
| "positive psychology" | -the study of the features that enrich life, such as happiness, hope, creativity, courage, spirituality, and responsibility |
| effects of wealth on well-being | -on average, low income people report feeling happy almost as frequently as high income people |
| -hard to be poor and sick and happy at the same time | |
| -people in richer countries generally rate themselves happier than those in poorer countries | |
| effects of crying | -no demonstrable health benefits |
| -crying does not relieve tension, in fact people who cried are more likely to be depressed later on | |
| epigenetic landscape (conrad waddington) | -canals of some traits, such as height |
| --traits such as height and other highly genetic traits are deeply canalized | |
| -traits such as outgoingness are more moldable, they are shallowly canalized | |
| "nature-nurture" problem | -is a trait due to heredity (nature) or the environment (nurture)? |
| -whether a trait is genetically influenced does not imply that it is fixed (non-plastic) | |
| epigenetics | -"governing" genetics |
| -potentially heritable information not contained in the NA sequences of the genome | |
| -markers may change with age | |
| identical vs fraternal twins | -identical twins develop from a single fertilized egg and have identical genes (monozygotic) |
| -fraternal twins develop from two eggs and share half their genes, like any siblings (dizygotic) | |
| effects of drinking and smoking during pregnancy | -if mother drinks alcohol during pregnancy, infant may develop fetal alcohol syndrome |
| --stunted growth of head and body, malformations of the face, heart, and ears, nervous system damage, mental retardation, etc | |
| capabilities of newborns | -time born babies have "core knowledge" about objects and physics of objects |
| -can distinguish human faces from all other objects | |
| -can imitate | |
| cross-sectional vs longitudinal studies | -a cross-sectional study compares groups of individuals of different ages at the same time |
| -in a longitudinal study one group of subjects is studied repeatedly as the members grow older | |
| cohort effects | -a cohort is a group of people born at a particular time or a group of people who enter an organization at a particular time |
| -cohort effects are the effects that this has on that group of people | |
| schemas (piaget) | -a schema is an organized way of interacting with objects |
| -i.e. infants have a grasping schema and a sucking schema | |
| -piaget thought children had 4 major stages of development | |
| --sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations | |
| assimilation | -applying an old schema to new objects or problems |
| -i.e. a child who observes that animals move on their own may believe that the sun and move, which also seem to move, must also be alive | |
| accommodation | -modifying an old schema to fit a new object or problem |
| -i.e. a child learns that "only living things move on their own" is a rule with exceptions that the sun and moon are not alive | |
| object permanence and how it's measured | -object permanence is the idea that objects continue to exist even when we do not see or hear them |
| -place toy in front of infant, he'll grab it | |
| -place toy in front of infant with clear glass, he'll move glass and grab it | |
| -if child cant see it, wont gra | |
| conservation of number, volume, mass | -children fail to understand that objects conserve such properties as number, length, volume, area, and mass after changes in the shape or arrangement of the objects |
| -i.e. pour water into a taller, thinner glass, child thinks taller glass has more water | |
| erikson's social development model (general concept, not specific stages) | -divided human life span into eight stages |
| -at each stage, people have specific tasks to master, and each stage generates its own social and emotional conflicts | |
| -mistakes at one stage may carry over and have unfortunate consequences at later stages | |
| key issues in adolescence, midlife, and old age | -adolescent- identity versus role confusion |
| -midlife-generativity versus stagnation | |
| -old age- ego integrity versus dispair | |
| parenting styles and effects | -authoritative- parents have high standards and control, warm and responsive to child's communication |
| -authoritarian- firm controls, emotionally distant | |
| -permissive- warm+loving, but undemanding | |
| -indifferent/uninvolved- spend little time, basic needs | |
| stockholme syndrome | -a phenomenon where hostages have positive feelings toward their captors that appear irrational in light of the danger or risk endured by the victims |
| -mistake lack of abuse from captors as an act of kindness | |
| effects of abuse on attachment and resilience | -abuse by caretaker leads to greater attachment |
| -children tend to cling to abusive parents | |
| effects of divorce on children | -regression (clinginess, thumb-sucking, bed-wetting) in young |
| -reunion fantasies, headaches/stomaches, guilt about divorce, anger/powerlessness, labeling parents as "good" vs "bad" | |
| -depression, acting out, suicidal ideation, withdrawl, pseudo-independen | |
| primacy effects on social impressions | -the primacy effect is the fact that the first information we learn about someone influences us more than later information does |
| -first impression is lasting | |
| methods of assessing prejudice | -implicit association test (IAT)- measures reactions to combinations of categories, such as flowers and pleasant |
| results of implicit association test | -in white college students |
| --most responded to the combos black/unpleasant and white/pleasant, even though they claimed to haqve no racial prejudice | |
| -implicit preference of white people toward other whites | |
| internal vs external attributions | -internal attributions- explanations based on someone's individual characteristics, such as attitudes, personality traits, or abilities |
| -external attributions- explanations based on the situation, including events that presumably influence nearly everyon | |
| internal vs external attributions examples | -internal- walked to work today "because you like the exercise" |
| -external- walked to work today "because your car wouldn't start" | |
| "fundamental attribution error" and culture | -to make internal attributions for people's behavior when we see evidence for an external influence on behavior |
| -a tendency to assume a strong similarity between someone's current actions and his or her dispositions | |
| actor-observer effect | -people are more likely to make internal attributions for other people's behavior and more likely to make external attributions for their own |
| -you are an "actor" when you try to explain your own behavior and an "observer" when you explain someone elses | |
| culture differences in attribution | -people of western cultures rely more on internal attributions in situations (fish is leading the other fish) |
| -people in China and other asian countries tend to make more external attributions (other fish are chasing the fish) | |
| self-serving attributional bias | -attributions that we adopt to maximize credit for success and minimize blame for failure |
| -good grade result of hard work and intelligence | |
| -bad grade result of unfair test | |
| self-handicapping strategies | -when people intentionally put themselves at a disadvantage to provide an excuse for failure |
| -if you think you are going to do bad on a test, you go to a party the night before so now you can blame your low score on your lack of sleep | |
| factors affecting persuasiveness of messages | -central route- when people take adecision seriously, they evaluate the evidence and logic behind each message |
| -peripheral- when people listen to a message on an unimportant topic they attend to more superficial factors such as appearance/reputation | |
| salesmanship techniques | |
| "foot-in-the-door" | |
| "door-in-the-face" | |
| "bait-and-switch" | |
| "that's-not-all" | -foot in door- start w/ modest request, follow with a larger request |
| -door in face- start w/ large request, increase chance second smaller request will be agreed | |
| -bait and switch- first offer extremely favorable deal, then make additional demands | |
| "that's-not-all" | -someone makes an offer and then improves the offer before you have a chance to reply |
| cognitive dissonance | -a state of unpleasant tension that people experience when they hold contradictory attitudes or when their behavior contradicts their stated attitudes, especially if the inconsistency distresses them |
| cognitive dissonance example | -experience negative feeling (dissonance) |
| -need to reduce that negative feeling | |
| --attitude want to do well on final, behavior party/play beer pong | |
| --to reduce dissonance: change behavior, change attitude, or adopt new attitude | |
| factors promoting friendship | -proximity and familiarity |
| -physical attractiveness | |
| -similarity | |
| biology and physical attractiveness | -"normal" is attractive |
| -healthy and fertile people are more likely to be "attractive" | |
| -many illnesses decrease people's attractiveness | |
| characteristics of successful marriages | -not living together before marriage |
| -no signs of contempt (rolling eyes or sarcasm) especially in early stages of marriage | |
| asch's conformity studies | -showed group a model bar, asked which bar was same length |
| -actual participant was only 1 person in group, second to last | |
| -37/50 participants conformed to the majority at least once, 14 conformed on most of the trials | |
| -people conform a lot | |
| diffusion of responsibility | -if there is a chain of command, people feel less responsible for their actions |
| -person taking orders "is just taking orders" | |
| -person giving orders "is just giving orders", not actually doing the dirty work | |
| social loafing | -the phenomenon of people making less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone |
| group polarization | -if nearly all the people who compose a group lean in the same direction on a particular issue, then a group discussion will move the group as a whole even further in that direction |
| groupthink | -an extreme form of group polarization |
| -when the members of a group suppress their doubts about a group's decision for fear of making a bad impression or disrupting group harmony | |
| basic setup of prisoner's dilemma and use | -you and a friend charged for a crime |
| -best outcome is both stay quiet | |
| -but will the other person confess? | |
| milgram obedience study & results | -people were put in front of a zapping machine that they were told would zap someone if the person answered a question wrong |
| -of 40 participants, 25 delivered shocks all the way to 450 volts | |
| -people from all walks of life obeyed the experimenter's order | |
| stanford prison experiment - basic results | -24 people, half guards half prisoners |
| -randomly chose who went into each group | |
| -the guards treated the prisoner's horribly, making them do awful things | |
| -experiment was cut short after 6 days | |
| -guards forced prisoners to do unusual things | |
| factors promoting obedience | -diffusion of responsibility |
| -situational | |
| kohlberg's view of moral development (general principle only) | -adaptation of piaget's theory |
| -moral reasoning, the basis for ethical behavior, has 6 identifiable developmental stages, each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than its predecessor | |
| -pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional stag | |
| problems with kohlberg's view | -emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other values |
| -overly androcentric | |
| -not culturally neutral | |
| ways to reduce prejudice | -subordinate (cooperative) goals |
| -once people are on the same team trying to accomplish goals that benefit both parties, they will be nicer to each other | |
| structured personality testing | -MMPI |
| -ask people questions and based on their answers sort them into different personality categories | |
| MMPI | -minnesota multiphasic personality inventory |
| -consists of true-false questions intended to measure certain personality dimensions and clinical conditions | |
| -empirically devised (based on evidence rather than theory) | |
| type A behavior pattern | -chronic sense of time urgency |
| -competitive achieving | |
| -sense of personal mission | |
| -self-imposed deadlines | |
| -high pace in mental/physical activities | |
| -aggression and hostility | |
| -often more successful | |
| cattell's personality research | -16 personality factors (16 PF test) |
| -if people used words as synonyms, his factor analysis got rid of redundancies, ended up w/ 16 words | |
| rorschach inkblot procedure | -show people a big blog of ink... ask them what they saw |
| -depending on what they saw it said something about their personality | |
| projective testing w/ rationale | -draw-a-person, draw-a-tree.. |
| -roschach inkblots | |
| -TAT | |
| TAT | -thematic apperception test |
| -when shown a picture, come up with a story of what happened before, during, and after the picture | |
| -depending on the story you told, it tells something about your personality | |
| trait theories - eysenck | -eysenck-2 personality dimensions |
| --extraversion vs introversion | |
| --neuroticism (emotionally reactive) vs stability | |
| --placed them on a cross plane (graph) | |
| trait theories - big five | -norman's big five |
| -CANOE/OCEAN | |
| -conscientiousness | |
| -agreeableness | |
| -neuroticism | |
| -openness to experience | |
| -extroversion | |
| psychodynamic personality theories | -a theory that relates personality to the interplay of conflicting forces within the individual, including the unconscious ones |
| -forces that we do not understand push us and pull us | |
| psychoanalysis | -freud's method of explaining and dealing with personality based on the interplay of conscious and unconscious forces |
| -freud's tool to understanding the unconscious | |
| -bring memories from the unconscious to the conscious producing catharsis to overcome | |
| catharsis | -a release of pent-up emotional tension |
| -talking is healing | |
| the unconscious | the repository of memories, emotions, and thoughts, many of them illogical, that affect our behavior even though we cannot talk about them |
| -traumatic experiences and unresolved childhood conflicts force thoughts and emotions into the unconscious | |
| oedipus complex | -according to freud, during childhood every boy goes through this |
| -when he develops a sexual interest in his mother and competitive aggression toward his father | |
| -he had no evidence... | |
| stages of psychosexual development | -oral stage (sucking, swallowing, biting) |
| -anal stage (expelling feces, retaining feces) | |
| -phallic stage (touching penis or clitoris; oedipus complex) | |
| -latent period (sexual interests suppressed) | |
| -genital stage (sexual contact w/ other people) | |
| components of personality (ego, id) | -ego-both conscious and unconscious, operates on reality principle (rational, decision making) |
| -id-purely unconscious, operates on pleasure principle (operates on sexual and biological drives) | |
| components of personality (superego) | -superego- both conscious and unconscious, operates on ideals (memory of rules and prohibitions we learned from our parents and others) |
| -"nice little boys and girls don't do that" | |
| defense mechanisms (know types) | -the ego defends itself against anxieties by relegating unpleasant thoughts and impulses to the unconscious mind |
| -repression- motivated forgetting | |
| -denial- refusal to believe information that provokes anxiety | |
| defense mechanisms (know types) | -rationalization- when people attempt to prove that their actions are rational and justifiable and thus worthy of approval |
| -displacement- lets people engage in behavior w/ less anxiety by diverting a behavior or thought away from its natural target towar | |
| defense mechanisms (know types) | -regression- a return to a more immature level of functioning |
| -projection- attributing one's own undesirable characteristics to other people | |
| -reaction formation- present themselves as the opposite of what they really are to hide the unpleasant truth | |
| defense mechanisms (know types) | -sublimation- the transformation of sexual or aggressive energies into culturally acceptable, even admirable, behaviors |
| overall evidence on validity of freud's psychoanalysis | -not much evidence at all |
| -most of his observations are very speculative | |
| jung's collective unconscious and archetypes | -early member of freud's inner circle (neo-freudian) |
| -collective unconscious is present at birth and pertains to the cumulative experience of preceding generations | |
| -archetypes- vague images that have always been part of the human experience | |
| adler and "social interest" | -early associate of freud but parted with him when freud overemphasized sex drive |
| -social interest- a sense of solidarity and identification with other people | |
| --an interest in the welfare of society | |
| --want to cooperate, not compete | |
| tryon's behavior-genetics study | -raised maze-bright and maze-dull rats |
| -after seven generations he breeded the best and worst maze rats with others of similar abilities | |
| -the differences were clearly genetic | |
| continuous vs stage theories | -stage developmental process involves distinct stages which are characterized by qualitative differences in behavior |
| --piaget, erkson, freud, etc | |
| -continuous development involves gradual and ongoing changes throughout the lifespan | |
| personality and criminal profiling | -assuming people who commit similar crimes have similar personalities or backgrounds |
| -research shows that criminal profiling is not very useful | |
| heredity and personality | -heredity can influence personality |
| -certain genes are linked to neuroticism (anxiety-proneness) | |
| kinsey and klein scales | -kinsey scale 0-6 (exclusively homo to exclusively hetero) |
| -klein scale looks not just at present behavior, but also previous (entire life span -- past, present, ideal) | |
| signs and symptoms of common mental disorders | -mood |
| --depression, bi-polar | |
| -anxiety | |
| --ocd, post-traumatic stress disorder | |
| -mania | |
| -anxiety | |
| -OC | |
| -A H | |
| basics of treatment for depression, mania, anxiety, ocd, shizophrenia, adhd | -depression- psychotherapy or medication, sometimes ECT shock therapy |
| -mania- medication only, inhibit pkc | |
| -anxiety- addictive GABA reducing drugs, exposure therapy (systematic desensitization, relaxation therapy) | |
| -ocd- seratonin medication | |
| -adhd- dru | |
| brain changes in shizophrenia, adhd | -shizophrenia- high dopamine activity |
| -adhd- low levels of dopamine and norepinephrine |
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