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A & P I Ch 2
Chemistry Comes Alive
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Matter | anything that has mass & occupies space |
| Mass | numerical measure of it's enertia...measured in kilograms |
| Weight | the force of gravity on the object |
| Energy | capacity to do work or put matter into motion |
| Types of Energy | Kinetic & Potential |
| Kinetic | energy in action |
| Potential | stored (inactive) energy |
| Glucose | C6 H12 O6 |
| C6 H12 O6 >>>>>> | 38ATP + 6CO2 + 6H20...cellular respiration...40% efficient |
| Forms of Energy | chemical...electrical...mechanical...radiant or electromagnetic |
| Chemical Energy | stored in bonds of chemical substances |
| Electrical Energy | results from movement of charged particles |
| Mechanical Energy | directly involved in moving matter |
| Radiant or Electromagnetic Energy | exhibits wavelike properties (i.e. visible light, ultraviolet light, & x-rays) |
| Conversion of Energy Forms | is inefficient because some energy is "lost" as heat |
| Major Elements of the Human Body | Oxygen...Carbon...Hydrogen...Nitrogen |
| Major Elements of the Human Body makes up _____ | about 99% of body mass |
| O | Oxygen |
| C | Carbon |
| H | Hydrogen |
| N | Nitrogen |
| Lesser Elements of the Human Body makes up _____ | about 3.9% of body mass |
| Lesser Elements of the Human Body | Calcium...Phosphorus...Potassium...Sulfur...Chlorine...Magnesium...Iodine...Iron |
| Ca | Calcium |
| P | Phosphorus |
| K | Potassium |
| S | Sulfur |
| Na | Sodium |
| Cl | Chlorine |
| Mg | Magnesium |
| I | Iodine |
| Fe | Iron |
| Trace Elements of the Human Body makes up _____ | <0.01% of body mass |
| Trace Elements of the Human Body | Chromium...Manganese...Zinc...Vitamins |
| Trace Elements of the Human Body are essential to _____ | most of the enzymes in the body |
| Cofactors | Chromium...Manganese...Zinc |
| Coenzymes | Vitamins |
| Cr | Chromium |
| Mn | Manganese |
| Zn | Zinc |
| Nucleus of an Atom Consists of _____ & _____ | neutrons (-) & protons (+) |
| Neutrons | no charge |
| Protons | positive charge |
| Electrons | orbit nucleus...equal in # to protons in atom...negative charge |
| Atomic # | # of protons in nucleus |
| Isotopes | structural variations of elements that differ in the # of neutrons they contain |
| Radioisotopes | spontaneous decay (radio activity)...similar chemistry to stable isotopes...can be detected with scanners |
| 3 Types of Mixtures | Solutions...Colloids...Suspensions |
| Solutions | homogeneous mixtures (the same)...usually transparent (solvent, solute)...solvent dissolves the solute |
| Colloids (Emulsions) | heterogeneous translucent mixture (different)...large solute particles that do not settle out...undergo sol-gel transformations...cytoplasm |
| Suspensions | heterogeneous mixtures (blood)...large visible solutes tend to settle out |
| Chemical Bonds | electrons occupy up to seven electron shells (energy levels) around nucleus |
| It is the _____ of _____ in the _____ of an element that dictates the _____ | #.....electrons.....outer shell.....chemical behavior |
| Octet Rule | except for the 1st shell, (which is full with 2 electrons) atoms interact in a manner to have 8 electrons in their outermost (valence) shell for stability |
| Chemically Inert Elements | do not chemically bond by ordinary means with anything else because they have 8 electrons in the valence shell |
| Chemically Reactive Elements | outermost energy level not fully occupied by electrons...tend to gain, lose, or share electrons (form bonds) with other atoms to achieve stability |
| Covalent Bond | the sharing of electrons between 2 or more elements |
| 3 Types of Chemical Bonds | ionic...covalent...hydrogen |
| Ionic Bonds | giving/taking of electrons...transfer of valence shell electrons between atoms |
| Anions | negative charge...have gained one or more electrons |
| Cations | positive charge...have lost one or more electrons |
| Attraction of _____ charges results in an _____ | opposite.....ionic bond |
| An Element that has Accepted an Electron is _____ | Reduced |
| An Element that Gives an Electron Away is _____ | the reducer |
| Reduction | gaining of an electron |
| Oxidized | giving an electron away |
| Oxidation | loss of an electron |
| Ionic compounds form _____ instead of individual molecules | crystals |
| Covalent Bonds | formed by sharing of 2 or more valence shell electrons...allows each atom to fill its valence shell at least part of the time |
| In covalent bonds, sharing of electrons may be _____ or _____ | equal or unequal |
| In covalent bonds, unequal sharing by atoms with different electron-attracting abilities produces _____ | polar molecules |
| electronegative | atom that has a greater pull on electrons |
| electropositive | atom that does not have a big pull on electrons |
| Polar molecules enhance _____ | the ability to be a solvent |
| Ionic bond...complete _____...seperates _____ | transfer of electrons.....ions form |
| Polar covalent bond...unequal _____...slight ______ | sharing of electrons...negative charge at one end & slight positive charge at the other end |
| Nonpolar covalent bond...equal _____...charge _____ | sharing of electrons...balanced among atoms |
| Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur...tends to have a _____ when dealing with _____ | electronegativity...hydrogen |
| Hydrogen Bonds | attractive force between electropositive hydrogen of one molecule and an electronegative atom of another molecule |
| Dipoles | di = 2 poles = opposite ends...positive on one end & neg on other end |
| Intramolecular Bonds | holding a large molecule in a three-dimensional shape |
| The bonds of a water represent _____ ______ type of bond...Also known as a _____ | polar covalent...dipole |
| Oxygen has a greater affinity for the electrons & is therefore more _____...whereas, hydrogen has a lesser attraction for electrons is more _____ | electronegative...electropositive |
| The Oxygen end of the molecule is therefore slightly more _____ & the hydrogen ends are slightly more_____ | negative...positive |
| The attraction between the negative oxygen end of one water compound to the positive end of another water represents a _____ bond | Hydrogen |
| (T/F) Hydrogen bonds are strong bonds? | False, they are easily broken |
| (T/F) Hydrogen bonds may be inter- or intramolecular | True |
| The unique properties of water are attributable yo hydrogen bonds. Some of the properties include... | cohesion...high boiling point...why ice floats...high heat of vaporization...high heat capacity |
| Chemical Reactions | occur when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken...represented as chemical equations |
| Chemical Equations contain | molecular formula for each reactant & product...relative amounts of reactants & products, which balance |
| Electrons dictate | the chemical behavior of the element |
| 3 Patterns of Chemical Reactions | synthesis (combination) reactions...decomposition reactions...exchange reactions |
| Synthesis | building |
| Decomposition | breaking something down |
| Hydrolisis | adding H20 & breaking a bond |
| Synthesis reactions is what type of metabolism | Anabolism |
| Decomposition reactions is what type of metabolism | Catabolism |
| Endergonic | putting energy into a reaction to build a new bond |
| Exergonic | releasing energy through a chemical reaction |
| Amino Acids | basic subunit of every protein |
| What is dehydration synthesis | removal of a water molecule to form a new covalent bond |
| What is hydrolisis | the addition of a water molecule to break a covalent bond |
| What is anabolism | forming new bonds to build something bigger...requires energy (endergonic) |
| What is catabolism | breaking bonds to make something smaller. Large molecules down to subunits...releases energy (exergonic) |
| Electron donors _____ & are ______ | lose electrons...oxidized |
| Electron acceptors _____ & become _____ | receive electrons...reduced |
| Reducing Agent | the one giving the electron away...the one being oxidized |
| Oxidizing Agent | the one accepting the electron...the one being reduced |
| All chemical reactions are either | exergonic or endergonic |
| Exergonic Reactions | release energy in the form of catabolic reactions |
| Endergonic Reactions | contain more potential energy than it's reactions therefore we call it anabolic reactions |
| Rate of reaction is influenced by | higher temperature, smaller particle size, higher concentration of reactant |
| Higher temperature | increase rate of reaction |
| Smaller particle size | increase rate of reaction |
| increase concentration of reactant | increase rate of reaction |
| Catalysts | anything that increases the rate of the reaction without being chemically changed itself |
| Catalysts _____ rate of the reaction but _____ | increases...does not become part of the reaction |
| Biological Catalysts | enzymes |
| Classes of compounds | Inorganic compounds & organic compounds |
| Inorganic Compounds | water, salts, many acids & bases...do not contain carbon |
| Organic Compounds | Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids...unique to living systems...contain carbon & hydrogen...usually large...covalent bonded by dehydration synthesis |
| Co & Co2 is _____ | inorganic |
| Water | most popular & common inorganic compound...essential for life...60-80% of the volume of living cells...most important inorganic compound in living organisms because of its properties |
| Intracellular Water | H20 in the cell...most of h20 in the body |
| Extracellular H20 | plasma in blood...water in tissues & matrix |
| Water's Properties | universal solvent...medium for chemical reactions to occur...is a part of chemical reactions |
| Salts | anything that you put into water that dissociates into it's ions...also called electrolytes |
| Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic Acids | polar molecules...will dissolve in water |
| Fats | also called lipids...insoluble in water...nonpolar |
| Positively charged are | Cations |
| Negatively charged are | Anions |
| Electrolytes | anything thats a salt in a solution that will conduct electricity |
| Properties of water | high heat capacity...high heat of vaporization...polar solvent properties...reactivity...cushioning |
| High heat capacity property of water | absorbs & releases heat with little temperature change...prevents sudden changes in temperature |
| High heat of vaporization property of water | evaporation requires large amounts of heat energy...useful cooling mechanism |
| Polar solvent property of water | dissolves & dissociates ionic substances or electrolytes...forms hydration layers around large charged molecules (proteins, electrolytes)...body's major transport medium |
| Most common electrolytes that we deal with | Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3 = bicarbonate |
| Reactivity property of water | a necessary part of hydrolysis & dehydration synthesis reations |
| Hydrolysis is _____ | catabolic...covalent bonds being broken |
| Dehydration Synthesis is _____ | Anabolic...covalent bonds being made |
| Cushioning property of water | protects certain organs from physical trauma |
| Salts | Ionic compounds that dissociate in water...contains cations other than H+ & anions other than OH-...ions (electrolytes) conduct electrical currents in solution...ions play specialized roles in body functions |
| H+ | proton...+ represents an acid...drives the pH down |
| OH- | Hydroxyl ion...-represents alkaline (basic)...drives the pH up |
| Acids & Bases | both are elctrolytes |
| Acids | are proton (hydrogen ion) donors (release H+ in solution)...contain [H+]...as [H+] increases, acidity increases & pH decreases |
| Bases | are proton acceptors (take up H+ from solution)...alkaline solutions contain bases (e.g. OH-)...as [H+] decreases (or as [OH-] increases) alkalinity increases & pH increases...also called buffers |
| Bicarbonate ion & ammonia | important bases in the body because of buffering properties |
| Bicarbonate Ion | HCO3- |
| pH | the negative logarithm of [H+] in moles per liter |
| [ ] | refers to the concentration of the thing |
| 10 -7 m = _____ | 7 pH |
| Neutral Solutions | pure water...are pH 7...contains equal numbers of H+ & OH- |
| Acidic Solutions | increase [H+] = decrease pH...pH of 0 - 6.99 |
| Alkaline Solutions | decrease [H+] == increase pH...pH of 7.01 - 14 |
| Bloods normal pH is | 7.35 - 7.45 |
| pH change interferes with _____ | cell function & may damage living tissues |
| Slight change in pH can be _____ | fatal |
| pH is regulated by _____ | kidneys (most effective but slowest responding)...lungs (2nd line of defense, expel or hold CO2)...buffers (frontline defense, binds protons - changes strong acids into weak acids) |
| Buffers | mixture of compounds that resist pH changes...convert strong (strongly dissociated) acids or bases into weak (slightly dissociated) ones |
| Carbonic Acid | formed by bicarbonate & protons reacting together...weak acid |
| If blood becomes too basic (rise in pH): | H2Co3>>>>>HCO3 + H+...creates more protons |
| If blood becomes too acid (drop in pH): | HCO3 + H+>>>>>H2CO3...creates carbonic acid |
| Many organic compounds are | polymers |
| polymers | chains of similar units (monomers or building blocks) |
| Polymers are formed by ______ | dehydration synthesis |
| What reactions break down polymers into monomers? | Hydrolysis |
| What molecule is essential to Hydrolysis? | H2O |
| Dehydration Synthesis | taking H20 out...anabolism...forms covalent bonds...endergonic reaction |
| Hydrolysis | water splitting...catabolism...exergonic reaction |
| ATP | primary form of energy in the body...endergonic reaction |
| Carbohydrates | carbo = carbon hydrates = water...sugars & starches...contain C, H, & O |
| (CH20)6 = | C6 H12 O6 |
| 3 classes of carbohydrates | monosaccharides...disaccharides...polysaccharides |
| Functions of carbohydrates | major source of cellular fuel (glucose)...structural molecules (ribose sugar in RNA) |
| glucose + O2 = | ATP...aerobic respiration |
| Monosaccharides | simple sugars containing 3 to 7 C atoms |
| Subscript 6 = | Hexose |
| subscript 5 = | Pentose |
| Disaccharides | double sugars...too large to pass through cell membranes |
| Sucrose | table sugar...glucose + fructose...built by dehydration synthesis |
| Polysaccharides | polymers of simple sugars (starch & glycogen)...not very soluble...without enzymes we could not use them because we couldn't break them down |
| Isomers | same chemical formula, different molecule structure |
| Glycogen | animals main storage form of glucose...found in high concentrations in the liver & muscles |
| Starch | plants main storage form of glucose |
| Cellulose | a key structural molecule in plants...not digestible by humans |
| Lipids | nonpolar/insoluble...contains C, H, O (less than carbs) & sometimes P |
| Main types of Lipids | Neutral fats or triglycerides...phospholipids...steroids |
| Triglycerides | Neutral fats (solid fats & liquid oils)...composed of 3 fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule |
| Saturated Fats | solid fats at room temperature |
| Unsaturated Fats | liquid oils at room temperature |
| Main functions of Triglycerides | energy storage...insulation...protection |
| Glycerol | is the 3 carbon backbone of triglycerides |
| What bond forms triglycerides | covalent ester bonds |
| Saturated fatty acids | unhealthy...single bonds between C atoms; max # of H...solid animal fats (e.g. butter) |
| Unsaturated fatty acids | one or more double bonds between C atoms...reduced # of H atoms...plant oils (e.g. olive oils) |
| Phospholipids | Bi molecule/ACDC molecule...modified triglycerides...head & tail regions have different properties (amphipathic)...important in cell membrane structure...problematic lipids |
| Head of phospholipids | phosphorus group...polar charged...water soluble = hydrophilic |
| Tails of phospholipids | 2 fatty acids...nonpolar...water insoluble = hydrophobic |
| Amphipathic | opposite properties...what phospholipids are |
| Steroids | interlocking 4-ring structure...cholesterol, vitamin D, steroid hormones, bile salts...vitamins K, E, D, & A (liquid soluble, water insoluble) |
| Cholesterol | basis of all steroids |
| Active vitamin D | stimulates small intestines to absorb calcium |
| Bile salts | emulsifies the fats in your diet...fats that encase lipids that you ingest in your diet to allow intestine to digest them |
| Fat-soluble vitamins | Vitamins K, E, D, A...can be stored in your system |
| Lipoproteins | transport fats in the blood |
| Proteins | most abundunt & most multifunctional of all organic compounds in the body...are enzymes...water insoluble...structural...polymers of amino acids (20 types) |
| Polymers of amino acids are joined _____ | by peptide bonds |
| Proteins contain: | C, H, O, N, & sometimes S & P |
| Peptide Bonds | covalent bonds between amino acids to make proteins...built by dehydration synthesis |
| Proteins are built on | peptide bonds |
| Peptides bonds are _____ & _____ | anabolism & endergonic |
| R group is called a _____ | functional group |
| DNA | blueprint (genetic code)...goes through transcription & turns into MRNA (messenger RNA) |
| Translation | conversion of MRNA on the ribosome into an amino acid chain (polypeptide chain) |
| Polypeptide Chain Primary Structure | the sequence of amino acids forms the polypeptide chain |
| H bonds are _____ | responsible for secondary structure |
| Polypeptide chain secondary structure | primary chain forms spirals (alpha-helices) & sheets (beta-sheets) |
| Alpha-helix | the primary chain is coiled to form a spiral structure, which is stabilized by hydrogen bonds |
| Beta-sheet | primary chain "zig-zags" back & forth forming a "pleated" sheet. Adjacent strands are helped together by hydrogen bonds |
| At secondary structure, not a _____ but still a _____ | functional protein...polypeptide |
| Tertiary Structure | superimposed on secondary structure. Alpha-helices & beta-sheets are folded up to form a compact globular molecule held together by intramolecular bonds |
| At the tertiary structure, is a _____ | functional protein |
| Denaturation | process of causing proteins to unfold & lose their specific three-dimensional shape into its primary structure |
| Quaternary Structure | 2 or more polypeptide chains, each with its own tertiary structure combine to form a functional protein |
| Fibrous Proteins | structural proteins...strandlike...water insoluble...very stable |
| Examples of fibrous proteins | keratin, elastin, collagen, certain contractile fibers |
| Collagen | the most common protein in nature & the body |
| Elastin | primary foundation of arota & arteries |
| Keratin | hard, resilant protein...finger nails, hair, surface of skin...protective protein (water, abrasion, & tear resistant) |
| Globular Proteins | very diverse...compact...spherical...water-soluble...sensitive to enviromental changes |
| Examples of globular proteins | antibodies...hormones...molecular chaperones...enzymes |
| Enzymes | biological catalyst which speeds up chemical reactions |
| Enviromental changes that proteins are sensitive to | high heat...high & low pH...alcohols...chemical...high & low NaCl |
| Protein Denaturation | shape change & disruption of active sites due to enviromental changes...reversible in most cases, if normal conditions are restored...inreversible if extreme changes damage the structure beyond repair |
| Enzymes do what? | lower the activation energy, increase the soeed of a reaction |
| Characteristics of Enzymes | often named for the reaction they catalyze; usually end in -ase...some functional enzymes (holoenzymes) consist of: Apoenzyme (protein) ///cofactor (metal ion) or coenzyme (a vitamin) |
| Hydrolases | removes water |
| Oxidases | removes electrons from a molecule |
| What is an enzyme | protein...biologic catalyst |
| What is a catalyst | substance that speeds up a reaction |
| What is Ea | Energy of activation |
| Enzymes do what to a reaction | Lower energy of activation...speeds up reaction |
| On what does an enzyme act | Its substrate |
| Enzymes are _____for their substrate | specific |
| Nucleic Acids | DNA & RNA...Contain C, O, H, N, & P...Building block |
| DNA & RNA are the _____ | largest molecules in the body |
| DNA | Deoxyribonucleic acid...4 bases...double-stranded helical molecule...provides instructions for protein synthesis...replicates before cell division...has a 5 carbon sugar backbone...lacks oxygen...has thymine |
| 4 bases of DNA | Adenine (A)...Guanine (G)...Cytosine (C)...Thymine (T) |
| What is the 5 carbon sugar backbone of DNA | Ribose |
| DNA is _____to create offspring | replicated |
| Why does DNA replicate before cell division | to ensure genetic continuity |
| RNA | Ribonucleic Acid...has oxygen...has uracil...4 bases...single-stranded molecule...3 varieties carry out DNA orders for protein synthesis |
| 3 varieties of RNA | Messenger RNA...Transfer RNA...Ribosomal RNA |
| 4 bases of RNA | Adenine (A)...Guanine (G)...Cytosine (C)...Uracil (U) |
| Differences of DNA & RNA | DNA does not have an oxygen while RNA does...DNA is a double-stranded molecule & RNA is a single-stranded molecule...DNA has thymine & RNA has uracil |
| Building block of DNA & RNA | nucleotide >>>>>subunit |
| Nucleotide is composed of | N containing base...pentose sugar...phosphate group |
| Pentose Sugar & Phosphate Group | backbone of DNA & RNA...don't participate in the actual reaction of DNA & RNA |
| N containing group | active portion of DNA & RNA...pair with their partner only |
| Adenine (A) & Thymine (T) | always pair with each other |
| Cytosine (C) & Guanine(G) | Always pair with each other |
| What bases of DNA & RNA always pair with each other | A & T...C & G |
| A & T/C & G pair by a ______ | Hydrogen bond |
| In RNA, A pairs with _____ | U |
| DNA >>>>> DNA | replication |
| DNA >>>>> mRNA | transcription |
| mRNA | carries message from the nucleus to the ribosome |
| mRNA >>>>> Protein | translation |
| tRNA | transfers amino acid to the ribosome |
| rRNA | RNA that is embeded in the ribosome |
| ATP | Adenosine Triphosphate...adenine-containing RNA nucleotide with 2 additional phosphate groups |
| Function of ATP | Phosphorylation |
| Phosphorylation | terminal phosphates are enzymatically transferred to & energize other moelcules...such "primed" molecules perform cellular work (life processes) using the phosphate bond energy |
| ATP is _____ into ______ | hydrolized...ADP & a phosphate group |
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