Kaplan MCAT Biology Chapter 3
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| Cellular metabolism | sum of all chemical reactions that occur in cell
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| Chem rxns in cell are either ________ or ___________ | anabolic; catabolic
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| anabolic reactions | energy requiring - require synthesis of compounds
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| catabolic reactions | release energy - break down compounds
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| Autotrophic organisms | obtain energy anabolically by converting sunlight into bond energy (photosynthesis)
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| Bond energy in autotrophic organisms stored in | organic compounds (mostly glucose)
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| Heterotrophic organisms | obtain energy catabolically by ingestion of compounds to be broken down
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| Net rxn of photosynthesis | 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy = C6H12O6 + 6O2
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| Rxn of glucose catabolism | reverse of photosynthesis
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| Energy carriers | ATP, NAD+, NADP (only in plants), FAD
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| Formation of and degrading of ATP = | energy stored and released
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| ATP i synthesized during | glucose catabolism
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| Components of ATP | adenine, ribose, 3 phosphate groups
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| Energy of ATP is stored | in covalent bonds of phosphate groups
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| Amount of energy released per mole of ATP | 7 kcal
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| ATP provides energy for what? | endergonic reactions - examples: muscle contraction, motility, active transport of substances across plasma membrane
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| NAD+, NADP, FAD are classified as __________ | coenzymes that are electron carriers
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| Where do the electrons come from that are carried by electron carriers in glucose catabolism? | H atoms removed during glucose oxidation
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| Where is the electron transport chain? | inner mitochondrial membrane
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| Oxidation | loss of an electron (H)
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| NAD+, NADP+, FAD are (oxidizing/reducing) agents | oxidizing
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| NAD+, NADP+, and FAD are (oxidized/reduced) when they become NADH, NADPH, FADH2 | reduced
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| NADH, NADPH, FADH2 are (oxidizing/reducing) agents | reducing agents
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| 2 steps of glucose catabolism | glycolysis, cellular respiration
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| Glycolysis product | 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP (net), reduction of NAD+ to NADH
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| Where does glycolysis occur? | cytoplasm
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| Substrate-level phosphorylation | ATP synthesis that is direct from degradation of glucose without the participation of an intermediate molecule such as NAD+
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| Does glycolysis occur in prokaryotic cells? | yes
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| Where is the energy of glucose after glycolysis? | pyruvate molecules (count 2)
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| Pyruvate degradation can occur in what 2 ways? | Fermentation, cellular respiration
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| During fermentation, pyruvate is (oxidized/reduced) | reduced
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| During aerobic cellular respiration, pyruvate is (oxidized/reduced) | oxidized
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| Fermentation is collectively what processes? | Glycolysis and formation of lactic acid
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| 2 types of fermentation | alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation
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| in what does does alcohol fermentation typically occur | yeast and some bacteria
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| In what does lactic acid fermentation typically occur? | fungi, bacteria, and human muscles during strenuous activity
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| During alcohol fermentation, pyruvate is ___________ to ____________ | decarboxylated; acetaldehyde
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| In muscles, lactic acid accumulation causes a decrease in _______ that leads to muscle fatigue | blood pH
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| Oxygen debt | the oxygen required to oxidize lactic acid back to pyruvate so that it can re-enter cellular respiration
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| How many ATP does aerobic cellular respiration yield | 36 in eukaryotes; 38 in prokaryotes
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| Why is cellular respiration more efficient with oxygen | b/c oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor and without it, electrons back up and NAD+ is not regenerated
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| Where does aerobic cellular respiration occur in eukaryotes? | mitochodria
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| 3 stages of aerobic cellular respiration | pyruvate decarboxylation, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain
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| Process of pyruvate decarboxylated | pyruvate transported to mitochondrial matrix and is decarboxylated (loses CO2) leaving an acetyl group; acetyl group is transferred to CoA to form acetyl CoA; NAD+ is reduced to NADH
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| Citric Acid Cycle aka | Krebs cycle and tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle)
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| Basics of citric acid cycle | acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate; 2 CO2 released and oxaloacetate regenerated; electrons transferred to NAD+ and FAD; each turn of cycle produces 1 ATP vi a GTP intermediate
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| Where is the electron transport chain? | inner mitochondrial membrane
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| What are most of the molecules of the electron transport chain? | cytochromes
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| 1st molecule of ETC | FMN(flavin mononucleotide)
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| Last molecule of ETC | cytochrome a3
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| Hindrances of the ETC | cyanide - blocks transfer of electrons from cytochrome a3 to oxygen and dinitrophenol - uncouples ETC from the proton gradient
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| 3 categories of protein complexes in ETC | NADH dehydrogenase, b-c1 complex, cytochrome oxidase
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| When does the energy loss occur in the ETC? | as electrons are transferred from one complex to the next - released 1 ATP per complex
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| Where does NADH deliver H? | dehydrogenase complex, thus producing 3 ATP
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| Where does FADH2 deliver H? | between dehydrogenase complex and b-c1 complex to carrier Q, thus producing only 2 ATP
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| What is the coupling agent of oxidation of NADH to phosphorylation of ADP? | proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane
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| What maintains the proton gradient? | as NADH passes electron, free H+ is released and accumulates in mitochondrial matrix creating a positive acidic environment which generates a roton-motive force driving H+ back through channels provided by enzyme complexes called ATP synthetases
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| How many ATP are produced in substrate-level phosphorylation? | 4
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| How many ATP are produced by oxidative phosphorylation? | 32 in eukaryotes; 34 in prokaryotes
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| What are other energy sources available when glucose runs low? | In order of body preference: other carbohydrates, fats, proteins
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| Where are fats stored and what are they stored as? | in adipose tissue as triglyceride
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| How are fats prepped for use as energy? | hydrolyzed by lipases to fatty acids and glycerol, then carried by blodd to other tissues for oxidation
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| How are proteins prepped for use as energy? | amino acids undergo transamination to form alpha-keto acid; carbons of amino acid converted into acetyl CoA, pyruvate or another intermediate
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