Nutrition, Metabolism, and Body Temp Regulation
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organic molecule that stores and releases chemical energy for use in body cells | ATP
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how energy value of food is measured; amount of heat energy needed to raise body temp of 1kg of water 1degree C | kilocalories
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chemical substances taken in via the diet that are used for energy and cell building | nutrients
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carbohydrates, lipids, & proteins | major nutrients
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vitamins, minerals, & water | other nutrients
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chemicals that must be obtained from outside sources because they cannot be made fast enough to meet needs of body | essential nutrients
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except for lactose & negligible amounts of glycogen in meats all carbs ingested are | derived from plants
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monosaccharides & disaccharides come from | fruits, sugar can, sugar beets, honey & milk
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polysaccharide, plentiful in most veges; not digested by humans but provides roughage | cellulose
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insoluble fiber | roughage
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increases bulk of stool & facilitates defecation | insoluble fiber
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reduces blood cholesterol levels; pectin found in apples & citrus fruits | soluble fiber
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glucose is principal __ __ | blood sugar
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carbohydrate molecule ultimately used as fuel by body cells to produce ATP; monosaccharide | glucose
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yield of fructose & galactose, during carbohydrate digestion, are | converted to glucose by liver before entering general circulation
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RBCs & neurons rely __ __ on glucose for their energy needs | almost entirely
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small amounts of __ __ are used to synthesize nucleic acids | pentose sugars
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variety of sugars are attached to externally facing plasma membrane __ & __ | proteins; lipids
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100 grams of carbs/day is presumed to be __ __ needed to maintain adequate blood glucose levels | smallest amount
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130 g/day of carbs, based on amount needed to fuel brain not total amount needed to supply all daily activities | recommended dietary allowance
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45-65% of one's total calorie intake with emphasis on complex carbohydrates is the recommended carb intake to | maintain overall health
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when less than 50 g/day, of carbs, is consumed | tissue proteins & fats are used for energy fuel
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most abundant dietary lipid | triglycerides
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triglycerides aka | neutral fats or triacylglycerols
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fats found in meat & dairy foods | saturated
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fats found in seeds, nuts, olive/vege oils | unsaturated
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fats are digested to monoglycerides or all the way to | fatty acids & glycerol
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once fats are digested into fatty acids & glycerol they are __ to triglycerides for transportation in lymph | reconverted
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egg yolk, meats, organ meats, shellfish, milk products are | major sources of cholesterol
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liver produces about 85% of __ __ regardless of dietary intake | blood cholesterol
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liver __ synthesize linoleic acid | cannot
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fatty acid component of lecithin; omega-6 fatty acid; essential fatty acid that must be ingested; found in vegetable oils | linoleic acid
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any of a group of phospholipids found in egg yolks & plasma membrane of plant & animal cells | lecithin
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bread, cereal, crackers, flour, pasta, nuts, rice, potatoes are all considered | complex carbohydrates
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carbonated drinks, candy, fruit, ice cream, pudding, young/immature vegetables | simple carbohydrates
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eggs, milk, milk products, meat (incl. fish, poultry, pork, beef, lamb) are considered | complete proteins
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legumes (incl. soybeans, lima beans, kidney beans, lentils) nuts & seeds, grains & cereals, & vegetables are considered | incomplete proteins
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dietary fats are essential because they help body absorb __ __ | fat-soluble vitamins
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dietary fats are essential because triglycerides are major energy fuel of __ & __ __ | hepatocytes; skeletal muscles
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dietary fats are essential because phospholipids are integral component of | myelin sheaths & cellular membranes
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fatty deposits in adipose tissue provide __ __ around body organs | protective cushion
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fatty deposits in adipose tissue provide __ __ beneath skin | insulating layer
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fatty deposits in adipose tissue provide easy-to-store __ __ of energy fuel | concentrated source
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cholesterol is __ __ for energy | not used
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regulatory molecule formed from linoleic acid via arachidonic acid, which play role in smooth muscle contraction, control of BP, & inflammation | prostaglandins
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cholesterol is __ component of plasma membranes | stabilizing
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cholesterol is __ from which bile salts, steroid hormones & other essential molecules are formed | precursor
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should represent 30% or less of total daily fat intake | fats
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should be limited to 10% or less of total daily fat intake | saturated fats
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should be no more than 300 mg | daily cholesterol intake
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should be less than 200 mg/dl | total blood cholesterol
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contain highest-quality proteins, those with greatest amount & best ratios of essential amino acids | animal products
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complete proteins meet all of the body's __ __ requirements for tissue maintenance & growth | amino acid
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incomplete proteins are nutritionally incomplete because they are low in one or more of the | essential amino acids
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important structural material of body in skin protein | keratin
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important structural material of body in CT protein | collagen
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important structural material of body in muscle protein | elastin
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enzymes & some hormones that regulate variety of body functions are | functional proteins
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all amino acids needed to make particular protein must be present in cell at same time & in same amounts; if one missing protein cannot be made | all-or-none rule
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because essential amino acids cannot be stored those not used immediately to build proteins are | oxidized for energy or converted to carbs/fats
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for optimal protein synthesis diet must supply sufficient carb/fat calories for ATP production; when doesn't dietary & tissue proteins used for energy | adequacy of caloric intake
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homeostatic state; rate of protein synthesis equals rate of protein breakdown & loss | nitrogen balance
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body is in nitrogen balance when amount of nitrogen ingested in proteins | equals amount excreted in urine & feces
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when amount of protein incorporated into tissue is greater than amount being broken down & used for energy | positive nitrogen balance
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positive nitrogen balance is found in | growing children & pregnant women
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positive nitrogen balance also occurs when | tissues are being repaired, following illness/injury
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protein breakdown for energy exceeds amount of protein being incorporated into tissues | negative nitrogen balance
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negative nitrogen balance occurs during | physical & emotional stress (i.e. infection, injury, or burns)
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negative nitrogen balance occurs when __ or __ of dietary protein is poor | quality; quantity
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negative nitrogen balance can occur during __ | starvation
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hormones that accelerate protein synthesis & growth | anabolic hormones
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effects of anabolic hormones __ __ throughout life | vary continually
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stimulates tissue growth during childhood & conserves protein in adults | pituitary growth hormone
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trigger growth spurts of adolescence | sex hormones
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hormones released during stress; enhance protein breakdown & conversion of amino acids to glucose | adrenal glucocorticoids
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supply essential amino acids; furnish raw material for making nonessential amino acids & various nonprotein nitrogen-containing substances | dietary proteins
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reflects his/her age, size, metabolic rate, & current state of nitrogen balance | amount of protein a person needs
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nutritionists recommend __ __ __ of 0.8 g per kg of body weight | daily protein intake
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organic compounds required by body in minute amounts; not used for energy & do not serve as building blocks, but are crucial in helping body use nutrients that do | vitamins
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nonprotein substance associated with and activating an enzyme, typically a vitamin | coenzyme
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most vitamins __ __ coenzymes | function as
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act as coenzymes in oxidation of glucose for energy | B vitamins
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most vitamins are not | made in the body
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vitamin D, small amounts of B vitamins & vitamin K | are made in the body
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synthesized by intestinal bacteria | vitamin K
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body can convert beta-carotene into | vitamin A
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beta-carotene, and substances like it, are call | provitamins
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no one food contains | all the required vitamins
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B-complex vitamins & vitamin C are | water-soluble vitamins
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in order to be absorbed, vitamin B12 must bind to __ __ in stomach secretions | intrinsic factor
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vitamins A, D, E, & K bind to ingested lipids & are absorbed along with their digestion products | fat-soluble vitamins
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anything that interferes with fat absorption also interferes with | absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
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with exception of __ __, fat soluble-vitamins are stored in the body | vitamin K
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vitamins C, E, & A & mineral selenium are __ that neutralize tissue-damaging free radicals | antioxidants
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inorganic chemical compounds found in nature; salts | minerals
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calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium & trace amounts of about a dozen other minerals are | required in moderate amounts in the body
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sum total of chemical reactions occurring in body cells | metabolism
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energy-requiring building phase of metabolism in which simpler substances are combined to form more complex substances | anabolism
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process in which living cells break down substances into simpler substances | catabolism
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metabolic processes in which ATP is produced | cellular respiration
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chemical reaction in which a phosphate molecule is added to a molecule | phosphorylation
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phosphorylation __ the molecule to change in a way that increases it activity, produces motion, or does work | primes
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essential for oxygen binding to hemoglobin | iron
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harden bone & teeth | calcium, phosphorus & magnesium salts
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necessary for thyroid hormone synthesis | iodine
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major electrolytes in the blood | sodium & chloride
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digestion in GI tract; absorbed nutrients are then transported in blood to tissue cells | stage 1 in processing of energy-containing nutrients
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during stage 2 of processing of energy-containing nutrients, which occurs in tissue cells, newly delivered nutrients can be built into lipids, proteins, & glycogen by | anabolic pathways
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during stage 2 of processing of energy-containing nutrients, which occurs in tissue cells, newly delivered nutrients can be broken down by __ __ to pyruvic acid & acetyl CoA in cell cytoplasm | catabolic pathways
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major catabolic pathway of stage 2 of processing of energy-containing nutrients is | glycolysis
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catabolic breakdown (in mitochondria) of intermediates into | CO2, water, & ATP
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primary function of cellular respiration is to | generate ATP
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gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen | oxidation
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whichever way oxidation occurs the oxidized substance always __ __ as they more to a substance that more strongly attracts them | loses electrons
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reaction that couples oxidation of one substance with reduction of another substance | oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions
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oxidized substances lose energy & reduced substances gain energy as energy-rich electrons are transferred from one substance to the next | key of redox reactions
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enzymes that catalyze the transfer of oxygen in oxidation-reduction reactions | oxidases
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catalyze redox reactions in which hydrogen are removed | dehydrogenases
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C6H12O6 + 6O2 arrow 6H2O + 6CO2 + 38 ATP + heat | oxidation of glucose
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glycolysis, Krebs cycle, & electron transport chain-oxidative phosphorylation | catabolic pathways of glucose
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process of ATP synthesis during which an inorganic phosphate group is attached to ADP; occurs via electron transport chain within mitochondria | oxidative phosphorylation
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occurs in cytosol of cells; series of 10 chemical steps by which glucose is converted to 2 pyruvic acid molecules | glycolysis
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glycolysis is a(n) __ pathway | anaerobic
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glycolysis does not use | oxygen
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glycolysis occurs whether or not | oxygen is present
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phase 1 of glycolysis | sugar activation
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phase 2 of glycolysis | sugar cleavage
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phase 3 of glycolysis | sugar oxidation & ATP formation
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fate of __ __, during glycolysis, depends in availability of oxygen | pyruvic acid
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if O2 not available, during glycolysis, pyruvic acid is | converted to lactic acid
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if O2 available, during glycolysis, pyruvic acid | enters aerobic pathways of Krebs cycle & electron transport chain
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aerobic metabolic pathway occurring within mitochondria, in which food metabolites are oxidized & CO_2 is liberated, & coenzymes are reduced | Krebs cycle
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Krebs cycle also called | citric acid cycle
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glycogen formation when glucose supplies exceed need for ATP synthesis | glycogenesis
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glycogenesis mostly occurs in | liver & skeletal muscles
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glycogen breakdown in response to low blood glucose | glycogenolysis
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glucose formation from noncarbohydrate (glycerol & amino acid) molecules when dietary sources & stores are depleted | gluconeogenesis
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gluconeogenesis occurs mainly in liver & protects | brain against effects of hypoglycemia
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energy yield from __ __ is twice that from glucose or protein catabolism | fat catabolism
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digested fats are transported in lymph as | chylomicrons
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chylomicrons are __ in plasma by enzymes into fatty acids and glycerol which are taken up by cells | hydrolyzed
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only triglycerides are routinely | oxidized for energy
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metabolite enters glycolytic pathway | glycerol pathway
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takes place in mitochondria; produces acetyl CoA- enter the Krebs cycle | beta oxidation of fatty acids
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glycerol & fatty acids not needed for energy are stored as triglycerides( mostly in subcutaneous tissues) | lipogenesis
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in lipogenesis, when cellular ATP & glucose levels are high glucose is | stored as triglycerides
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when carbohydrates are deficient breakdown of stored fats to glycerol & fatty acids provides fuel for aerobic respiration | lipolysis
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when carbohydrates are severely deficient lipolysis results in | accumulation of acetyl CoAgets converted to ketone bodies in liver
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when dietary protein is in excess of that needed for anabolic processes, amino acids are | oxidized for energy or converted into fat
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results in pyruvic acid & carbohydrate intermediates- enter the Krebs cycle | oxidation of Amino Acids
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during oxidation of Amino Acids, amine group is removed as toxic ammonia which is converted by liver to | urea & excreted by kidney
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requires a complete set of amino acids so essential amino acids must be provided in diet | protein synthesis
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dynamic state in which organic molecules are continuously broken down and rebuilt | catabolic-anabolic steady state
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during catabolic-anabolic steady state, body nutrient pools of amino acids carbohydrates & fats are | interconvertible
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used for protein synthesis, gluconeogenesis & supply of energy (after being converted to a carbohydrate intermediates) | amino acid pool
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are easily interconverted through key intermediates | carbohydrate & fat pools
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during and shortly after eating, nutrient absorption into blood has occurred | absorptive (fed) state
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excess metabolites will be transformed into fat when | anabolism exceeds catabolism
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when the GI tract is empty- energy sources are supplied by breakdown of reserves | postabsorptive (fasting) state
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Krebs cycle is key pathway in __ __, of metabolism of energy-containing nutrients | Stage 3
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cellular respiration consists of __ of Stage 2 (metabolism of energy-containing nutrients) and __ __ of Stage 3 | glycolysis; all events
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generating ATP is __ __ of cellular respiration | primary function
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cellular respiration traps some of chemical energy of original food molecules in its | own high-energy bonds
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many reactions that take place within cells are __ reactions | oxidation
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hydrogen in __, so its lone electron usually spends time orbiting other atoms of molecule | electropositive
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oxygen is very __, so when oxygen binds with other atoms shared electrons spend more time in oxygen's vicinity | electron-hungry
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all oxidation of food fuels involves step-by-step removal of pairs of __ atoms from substrate molecules | hydrogen
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result of oxidation of food fuels, where there is step-by-step removal of pairs of hydrogen atoms from substrate molecules, eventually leaves only | carbon dioxide CO2
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in oxidation of food fuels, __ __ is final electron acceptor | molecular oxygen
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in oxidation of food fuels, molecular oxygen combines with removed hydrogen atoms at very __ of process, to form __ | end; water
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whenever one substance is oxidized, another substance is | reduced
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as food fuels oxidized, their energy is transferred from one molecule to another, and ultimately to __ to form __ __ | ADP; energy-rich ATP
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redox reactions are __ by enzymes | catalyzed
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enzymes require help of __ __, typically derived from one of B vitamins | specific coenzymes
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enzymes that catalyze removal of hydrogen atoms to oxidize substance cannot | accept the hydrogen
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coenzymes act as __ __, becoming reduced each time substrate is oxidized | hydrogen acceptors
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occurs when high-energy phosphate groups are transferred directly from phosphorylated substrates to ADP | substrate-level phosphorylation
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substrate-level phosphorylation occurs because high-energy bonds attaching phosphate groups to substrates are | even more unstable than those in ATP
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ATP is synthesized via substrate-level phosphorylation, once during __ and once during each turn of __ __ | glycolysis; Krebs cycle
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enzymes catalyzing substrate-level phosphorylation are located in __ & __ __ inside mitochondria | cytosol; watery matrix
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oxidative phosphorylation releases most of energy that is eventually | captured in ATP bonds during cellular respiration
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oxidative phosphorylation is carried out by __ __ __ forming part of inner mitochondrial membrane | electron transport proteins
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couple movement of substances across membranes to chemical reactions | chemiosmotic processes
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oxidation of food fuels is __ part of chemiosmotic | chemi
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chemi part of chemiosmotic is used to __ __ across inner mitochondrial membrane into intermembrane space | pump protons (H+)
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chemiosmotic processes create __ __ __ for protons across mitochondrial membrane | steep concentration gradient
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during chemiosmotic processes, H+ flows back across membrane through membrane channel called | ATP synthase
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during chemiosmotic processes, when H+ flows back across membrane, some of gradient energy is | captured & used to attach phosphate groups to ADP
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are eventually turned into glucose | all food carbohydrates
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glucose enters tissue cells by | facilitated diffusion
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facilitated diffusion of glucose into tissue cells is greatly enhanced by | insulin
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upon entry into cell glucose is immediately phosphorylated into | glucose-6-phosphate
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because most body cells lack enzymes needed to reverse immediate phosphorylation of glucose, upon entry into tissue cells, it | effectively traps glucose inside of cells
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the only body cells that have enzymes needed to reverse immediate phosphorylation of glucose, upon entry into tissue cells, are | intestinal mucosa cells, kidney tubules cells, & liver cells
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catabolic & anabolic pathways for carbs | all begin with glucose-6-phosphate
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glucose is pivotal fuel molecule in __ pathways | ATP-producing
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exclusive function of electron transport chain is | use of oxygen
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carries out final catabolic reactions that occur on mitochondrial cristae | electron transport chain
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when more glucose available than can be oxidized, rising intracellular ATP concentrations eventually inhibit glucose catabolism and | begin process that stores glucose as glycogen/fat
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accounts for 80-85% of stored energy | fat
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an important energy source for skeletal muscles that have depleted their own glycogen reserves | liver glycogen
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fatty acid metabolites; strong organic acids | ketones
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adrenal cortex, ovaries, & testes use cholesterol to | synthesize their steroid hormones
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protein synthesis occurs on | ribosomes
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protein anabolism reflects __ __ at each stage of life | hormonal balance
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during absorptive state anabolism __ catabolism | exceeds
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absorbed monosaccharides are delivered directly | to the liver
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once absorbed monosaccharides are delivered to liver, __ & __ are converted to glucose | fructose; galactose
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glycogen formed in liver is | stored there
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most fat synthesized in liver is packaged with proteins as | very low density lipoproteins (VLDLs)
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very low density lipoproteins (VLDLs) are released to blood to be picked up for | storage by adipose tissues
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not sequestered by liver enters body cells to be metabolized for energy | bloodborne glucose
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any excess of bloodborne glucose is stored in __ __ as glycogen or in __ cells as fat | skeletal muscles; adipose
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enzyme that catalyzes fat hydrolysis & is active in capillaries of muscle & fat tissues | lipoprotein lipase
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use triglycerides as primary energy source | adipose, skeletal & cardiac muscle, & liver cells
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most fatty acids & glycerol enter adipose tissue to be __ to triglycerides & stored | reconverted
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liver __ some amino acids to make them keto acids | deaminates
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keto acids may be used for __ __ in Krebs cycle, or may be converted to __ __ stores | ATP synthesis; liver fat
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liver uses some amino acids to | synthesize plasma proteins
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plasma proteins synthesized from amino acids by liver include | albumin, clotting proteins, & transport proteins
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most amino acids traveling through liver remain in blood to be | used by other cells for protein synthesis
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hormone that enhances carrier-mediated diffusion of glucose into tissue cells, thus lowering blood glucose levels | insulin
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insulin directs essentially all events of | absorptive state
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rising blood glucose levels after carb-containing meal act as __ __ that prods beta cells of pancreatic islets to secrete more insulin | humoral stimulus
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glucose-induced stimulation of insulin release (by pancreatic islets) is enhanced by GI tract hormone | glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP)
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glucose-induced stimulation of insulin release (by pancreatic islets) is enhanced by __ stimulation | parasympathetic
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2nd important stimulus for insulin release is | elevated amino acid levels in blood
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enhances carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion of glucose | translocation of glucose transporter (GLUT-4)
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brain & liver cells take up glucose whether or not | insulin is present
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once glucose enters tissue cells, insulin __ glucose oxidation for energy & __ it conversion to glycogen | enhances; stimulates
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insulin revs up __ __ of amino acids into cells | active transport
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insulin __ protein synthesis | promotes
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insulin __ liver export of glucose | inhibits
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insulin inhibits virtually all liver enzymes that | promote gluconeogenesis
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insulin is __ hormone | hypoglycemic
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insulin sweeps glucose out of blood into tissue cells, in turn | lowering glucose levels
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consequence of inadequate insulin production or abnormal insulin receptors | diabetes mellitus
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net synthesis of fat, glycogen, & protein ends & catabolism of these substance begins to occur | postabsorptive state
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primary goal of postabsorptive state is to | maintain blood glucose levels between meals
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postabsorptive state promotes | use of fats for energy
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postabsorptive state spares glucose | for brain
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liver's glycogen stores are __ __ of glucose reserves used in postabsorptive state | 1st line
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in postabsorptive state, liver's glycogen stores can maintain blood sugars levels for about | 4 hours
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in postabsorptive state, 2nd line of glucose reserves tapped into are | glycogenolysis in skeletal muscles
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before liver glycogen is exhausted, in postabsorptive state, glycogenolysis begins in | skeletal muscles
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glucose produces by glycogenolysis in skeletal muscles, in postabsorptive state, is not released into blood because | skeletal muscles does not enzymes needed to dephosphorylate glucose
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during glycogenolysis in skeletal muscles, in postabsorptive state, glucose is __ __ to pyruvic acid | partly oxidized
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skeletal muscle contributes to blood glucose homeostasis | indirectly via liver mechanisms
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during lipolysis in adipose tissues & liver, glycerol is used for | gluconeogenesis in the liver
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when fasting is prolonged & glycogen/fat stores are nearly exhausted | tissue proteins become major source of blood glucose
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during catabolism of cellular proteins, cellular amino acids are __ & converted to glucose in liver | deaminated
🗑
|
||||
during fasting for several weeks, __ also carry out gluconeogenesis & contribute as much glucose to blood as liver | kidneys
🗑
|
||||
during prolonged fasting/starvation, __ __ are 1st to be catabolized | muscle proteins
🗑
|
||||
determines time a person can survive without food | amount of fat body contains
🗑
|
||||
increased use of noncarbohydrate fuel molecules, especially triglycerides, to conserve glucose | glucose sparing
🗑
|
||||
as body progresses from absorptive to post absorptive state all other organs, besides __, switch to fatty acids as major energy source | brain
🗑
|
||||
during transition phase, from absorptive to post absorptive state, __ begins in adipose tissues & released __ __ are picked up by tissue cells & oxidized for energy | lipolysis; fatty acids
🗑
|
||||
important trigger for initiating postabsorptive events is | dampening of insulin release
🗑
|
||||
dampening of insulin release occurs as blood glucose levels __ | drop
🗑
|
||||
as insulin levels drop, during postabsorptive state, all __ __ responses are inhibited as well | insulin-dependent cellular
🗑
|
||||
can improve body's use of insulin, during postabsorptive state | drinking moderate amounts of beer, wine, or gin
🗑
|
||||
stimulate alpha cells of pancreatic islets to release glucagon | declining glucose levels
🗑
|
||||
hormone formed by alpha cells of pancreatic islets; raises glucose level of blood | glucagon
🗑
|
||||
glucagon is __ of insulin | antagonist
🗑
|
||||
during postabsorptive state glucagon is considered __ __ | hyperglycemic hormone
🗑
|
||||
term used to describe hormones such as glucagon that elevate blood glucose level | hyperglycemic
🗑
|
||||
targets of glucagon are | liver & adipose tissue
🗑
|
||||
during postabsorptive state, they respond to glucagon by accelerating glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis | hepatocytes in liver
🗑
|
||||
during postabsorptive state, in response to glucagon they mobilize lipolysis & release fatty acids & glycerol to blood | adipose cells
🗑
|
||||
during postabsorptive state, glucagon __ blood energy sources by __ both glucose & fatty acid levels | restores; enhancing
🗑
|
||||
during postabsorptive state, certain hormonal controls combined with persistent low glucose levels or prolonged fasting, most fat that is mobilized is | converted to ketone bodies
🗑
|
||||
glucagon release is __ after next meal or whenever blood glucose levels rise & insulin secretion begins again | inhibited
🗑
|
||||
insulin & thyroxine stimulate | glucose uptake by cells
🗑
|
||||
insulin & growth hormone stimulate | acid uptake by cells
🗑
|
||||
insulin & thyroxine stimulate __ __ for energy | glucose catabolism
🗑
|
||||
hormone that stimulates glycogenesis, lipogenesis, & fat storage | insulin
🗑
|
||||
insulin inhibits | gluconeogenesis
🗑
|
||||
insulin, growth hormone, thyroxine, & testosterone stimulate | anabolic protein synthesis
🗑
|
||||
glucagon & epinephrine stimulate | glycogenolysis
🗑
|
||||
glucagon, epinephrine, growth hormone, thyroxine, & cortisol stimulate | lipolysis & fat mobilization
🗑
|
||||
glucagon, epinephrine, growth hormone, & cortisol __ gluconeogenesis | stimulate
🗑
|
||||
cortisol stimulate __ __ breakdown | catabolic protein
🗑
|
||||
both insulin & glucagon release are strongly stimulated by | rising amino acid levels in blood
🗑
|
||||
when high-protein low carb meal is eaten stimulus for insulin release is strong, & if not counterbalanced may cause | damage to brain by abrupt onset of hypoglycemia
🗑
|
||||
when high-protein low carb meal is eaten, simultaneous release of glucagon __ effects of insulin | modulates
🗑
|
||||
when high-protein low carb meal is eaten, simultaneous release of glucagon helps __ blood glucose levels | stabilize
🗑
|
||||
plays crucial role in supplying food quickly when blood glucose levels drop suddenly | sympathetic nervous system
🗑
|
||||
well supplied by sympathetic nerve fibers | adipose tissues
🗑
|
||||
epinephrine released by adrenal medulla in response to sympathetic activation acts on | liver, skeletal muscles, & adipose tissues
🗑
|
||||
when acting together, sympathetic nerve stimulation & release of epinephrine from its activation | mobilize fat & promote glycogenolysis
🗑
|
||||
enhanced by prolonged fasting or rapid declines in blood glucose levels; exerts important anti-insulin effects | growth hormone
🗑
|
||||
growth hormone reduces ability of insulin to promote | glucose uptake in fat & muscle
🗑
|
||||
function of carbohydrate metabolism in liver, important in maintaining blood glucose homeostasis, is to convert | galactose & fructose to glucose
🗑
|
||||
in carbohydrate metabolism, it store glucose as glycogen when blood glucose levels are high & in response to hormonal controls performs glycogenolysis & releases into blood called | glucose buffer function
🗑
|
||||
a function of carbohydrate metabolism in liver is | gluconeogenesis: conversion of amino acids & glycerol to glucose when glycogen stores are exhausted & blood glucose levels are falling
🗑
|
||||
a function of carbohydrate metabolism in liver is conversion of glucose to | fats for storage
🗑
|
||||
function of fat metabolism in liver, primary site of | beta oxidation
🗑
|
||||
beta oxidation is | breakdown of fatty acids to acetyl CoA
🗑
|
||||
function of fat metabolism in liver, converts excess acetyl CoA to | ketone bodies for release to tissue cells
🗑
|
||||
function of fat metabolism in liver, is | fat storage
🗑
|
||||
function of fat metabolism in liver, forms __ for transport of fatty acids, fats, & cholesterol to & from tissues | lipoproteins
🗑
|
||||
function of fat metabolism in liver, synthesis of cholesterol from __ __ in order to catabolize cholesterol to __ __ which are excreted in bile | acetyl CoA; bile salts
🗑
|
||||
without liver metabolism of protein many __ __ would not be made | clotting proteins
🗑
|
||||
without lever metabolism of protein __ would not be disposed from the body | ammonia
🗑
|
||||
important function of liver, metabolism of protein __ amino acids | deaminates
🗑
|
||||
required for amino acid conversion to glucose or use for ATP synthesis; takes place in liver | deamination of amino acids
🗑
|
||||
through metabolism of protein by liver, ammonia is removed from body | in urea
🗑
|
||||
inability to form urea in liver results in | accumulation of ammonia in blood
🗑
|
||||
protein metabolism by liver, forms most __ proteins | plasma
🗑
|
||||
if protein metabolism by liver does not take place plasma protein depletion causes | rapid mitosis of hepatocytes & actual growth of liver
🗑
|
||||
plasma proteins not formed by liver | gamma globulins, some hormones & some enzymes
🗑
|
||||
intraconversion of nonessential amino acids | transamination
🗑
|
||||
transamination is liver function brought about by | protein metabolism
🗑
|
||||
liver functions to store 1-2 year supply of | vitamin A
🗑
|
||||
liver functions to store sizable amounts (1-4 months' supply) of | vitamin D & B12
🗑
|
||||
liver functions to store __, stored as ferritin until needed | iron
🗑
|
||||
liver releases iron to blood as | blood levels drop
🗑
|
||||
biotransformation function of liver includes metabolism of __ & __ by performing synthetic reactions yielding inactive products for excretion by kidneys | alcohol; drugs
🗑
|
||||
biotransformation function of liver includes metabolism of alcohol & drugs by performing __ __ that may result in products which are more active, changed in activity, or less active | nonsynthetic reactions
🗑
|
||||
the only thing that can do liver's work | is a hepatocyte
🗑
|
||||
serves as structural basis of bile salts, steroid hormones, & vitamin D as a major component of plasma membranes | cholesterol
🗑
|
||||
cholesterol is part of __ __ molecule that helps direct embryonic development | key signaling
🗑
|
||||
about 15% of __ cholesterol comes from diet | blood
🗑
|
||||
85% of blood cholesterol is made from __ __ by liver | acetyl CoA
🗑
|
||||
intestinal cells also make __ from acetyl CoA | cholesterol
🗑
|
||||
because triglycerides & cholesterol are insoluble in water they do not | circulate freely in blood
🗑
|
||||
triglycerides & cholesterol are transported to & from tissue cells bound to small __ __ | lipid-protein complexes
🗑
|
||||
solubilize hydrophobic lipids, & protein part contains signals that regular lipid entry & exit at specific target cells | lipoproteins
🗑
|
||||
in lipoproteins, relative __ __ varies considerably | fat-protein composition
🗑
|
||||
contain triglycerides, phospholipids, & cholesterol | all lipoproteins
🗑
|
||||
the higher the % of lipid in lipoproteins, to __ its density | lower
🗑
|
||||
greater the proportion of protein in lipoproteins, the __ its density | higher
🗑
|
||||
class of lipoproteins that transport triglycerides from intestine & liver to adipose & muscle tissues; they contain primarily triglycerides w/some cholesteryl esters | very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)
🗑
|
||||
class of plasma lipoproteins that transport cholesterol to extrahepatic tissues; high serum levels have been correlated w/premature coronary heart disease | low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
🗑
|
||||
class of plasma lipoproteins that promote transport of cholesterol from extrahepatic tissue to liver for excretion in bile; serum levels have been negatively correlated w/premature coronary heart disease | high-density lipoprotein (HDL)
🗑
|
||||
liver is __ source of VLDLs | primary
🗑
|
||||
once triglycerides are unloaded from liver to peripheral tissues VLDL residues are | converted to LDLs
🗑
|
||||
LDLs are considered | cholesterol-rich
🗑
|
||||
transport cholesterol to peripheral (non-liver) tissues making it available to tissue cells for membrane/hormone synthesis & for storage for use later | role of LDLs
🗑
|
||||
LDLs also regulate __ __ in tissue cells | cholesterol synthesis
🗑
|
||||
docking of LDL to LDL receptor triggers __ __ of entire particle | receptor-mediated endocytosis
🗑
|
||||
HDLs are particularly rich in | phospholipids & cholesterol
🗑
|
||||
major function of __ is to scoop up & transport excess cholesterol from peripheral tissues to liver | HDLs
🗑
|
||||
liver make __ __ of HDL particles & then ejects them into bloodstream in collapsed form | protein envelopes
🗑
|
||||
once in blood incomplete HDL particles __ __ __ picked up from tissue cells & pulled from artery walls | fills with cholesterol
🗑
|
||||
HDL also provides __ organs with raw their material of cholesterol | steroid-producing
🗑
|
||||
organs like ovaries & adrenal glands have ability to __ __ cholesterol from HDL particles without engulfing them | selectively remove
🗑
|
||||
transport absorbed lipids from GI tract; separate class from lipoproteins; have lowest density of all | chylomicrons
🗑
|
||||
chylomicrons come from | intestines
🗑
|
||||
VLDLs & LDLs are made | by liver
🗑
|
||||
HDLs are returned | to liver
🗑
|
||||
are thought to protect against heart attack (good cholesterol) | high levels of HDL
🗑
|
||||
increase the risk of heart attack (bad cholesterol) | high levels of LDL
🗑
|
||||
partially adjusted amount of cholesterol produced by liver according to amount of cholesterol in diet | negative feedback loop
🗑
|
||||
high cholesterol intake inhibits | cholesterol production by liver
🗑
|
||||
liver produces __ __ of cholesterol even when dietary intake is high | basal amount
🗑
|
||||
saturated fatty acids __ __ synthesis of cholesterol | stimulate liver
🗑
|
||||
saturated fatty acids inhibit __ of liver cholesterol from body | excretion
🗑
|
||||
unsaturated fatty acids enhance __ of cholesterol & its __ to biles salts | excretion; catabolism
🗑
|
||||
unsaturated fatty acids reduce | total cholesterol levels
🗑
|
||||
unsaturated __ fatty acids lower proportions of saturated fats & cholesterol | omega-3
🗑
|
||||
healthy oils that have been hardened by hydrogenation to make them more solid; cause serum changes worse than those cause by saturated fats | trans fats
🗑
|
||||
spark greater increase in LDLs & greater reductions in HDLs, producing unhealthiest ratio of total cholesterol to HDL | trans fatty acids
🗑
|
||||
energy liberated during food oxidation | energy intake
🗑
|
||||
sum of energy lost as heat (60%), as work (driven by ATP), and as fat or glycogen storage | energy output
🗑
|
||||
nearly all energy derived from food stuffs is | eventually converted to heat
🗑
|
||||
heat is lost during | every cellular activity
🗑
|
||||
cells cannot use it to do work, it warms the tissues and blood | heat energy
🗑
|
||||
heat energy helps maintain __ __ temperature | homeostatic body
🗑
|
||||
heat energy allows __ __ to occur efficiently | metabolic reactions
🗑
|
||||
important part of energy equation only during periods of growth & net fat deposit | energy storage
🗑
|
||||
when energy intake/output are balanced | body weight remains stable
🗑
|
||||
nuclei in __ regulate hunger & satiety | hypothalamus
🗑
|
||||
vagus nerve delivers neural signals from __ __ to hypothalamus | digestive tract
🗑
|
||||
rising blood levels of glucose, amino acids, fatty acids send signals to | brain indicating fullness
🗑
|
||||
chemoreceptors respond to | hormones, like glucose, insulin, etc.
🗑
|
||||
released from fat cells; suppress hunger | insulin & leptin
🗑
|
||||
glucagon stimulates __ | hunger
🗑
|
||||
body temperature & psychological factors increase or inhibits __, to a lesser degree | eating
🗑
|
||||
reflects energy body needs to perform its most essential activities; such as breathing & resting level of organ function; ‘the cost of living’ | basal metabolic rate (BMR)
🗑
|
||||
energy body needs to fuel all ongoing activities | total metabolic rate (TMR)
🗑
|
||||
hormone released by fat cells that signals satiety | leptin
🗑
|
||||
involves neural signals from GI tract, blood levels of nutrients, & GI tract hormones; target hypothalamic centers via solitary tract/nucleus of brain stem | short-term regulation of appetite & feeding behaviors
🗑
|
||||
activation stretch receptors ultimately inhibits appetite, because GI Tract distention sends signals along vagus nerve afferents that suppresses appetite-enhancing/hunger center | long-term regulation of appetite & feeding behaviors
🗑
|
||||
rising blood glucose, elevated blood levels of amino acids, & blood concentration of fatty acids are all | nutrient signals that indicate fullness or satiety
🗑
|
||||
during fasting & hypoglycemia the activation of glucose receptors in brain that ultimately depress eating are | absent resulting in hunger & turn-on of food-seeking behaviors
🗑
|
||||
larger the amount of fatty acids in blood, the greater the | inhibition of eating behavior
🗑
|
||||
insulin & cholecystokinin (CCK) are __ __ released during food absorption, & act as satiety signals to depress hunger | gut hormones
🗑
|
||||
glucagon & epinephrine levels __ during fasting | rise
🗑
|
||||
powerful appetite stimulant, produced by stomach; trigger for meal initiation; levels peak just before mealtime, troughs after meals | Ghrelin (Ghr)
🗑
|
||||
the hormone leptin is __ __ of long-term control of feeding behavior | key component
🗑
|
||||
leptin is secreted exclusively by adipose cells in response to a(n) | increase in body fat mass
🗑
|
||||
leptin serves as an indicator of | body's total energy stores in fat tissue
🗑
|
||||
energy expended by the body per unit time; total heat produced by all chemical reactions & mechanical work of body | metabolic rate
🗑
|
||||
device used for measuring quantities of heat generated by friction, chemical reaction, or the human body | calorimeter
🗑
|
||||
calorimeter is considered __ __ of measurement of metabolic rate | direct method
🗑
|
||||
used to measure oxygen consumption, which is directly proportional to heat production | respirometer
🗑
|
||||
respirometer is considered __ __ of measurement of metabolic rate | indirect method
🗑
|
||||
metabolic rate is measured when a person is in | postabsorptive state (at least 12hrs w/out food)
🗑
|
||||
most important hormonal factor in determining BMR is the amount of | thyroxine released by thyroid gland
🗑
|
||||
direct effect of thyroxine on most body cells, except brain cells, is to | increase O2 consumption & heat production
🗑
|
||||
thyroxine increases O2 consumption & heat production by accelerating use of ATP to operate | sodium-potassium pump
🗑
|
||||
results in slowed metabolism, obesity, & diminishes thought processes | hypothyroidism
🗑
|
||||
catabolize stored fats & tissue proteins, weight loss despite food intake, bones weaken & muscles begin to atrophy | hyperthyroidism
🗑
|
||||
BMR account for __ __ of TMR | large part
🗑
|
||||
skeletal muscle activity causes most dramatic | short-term changes in TMR
🗑
|
||||
food ingestion induces __ __ in TMR | rapid increase
🗑
|
||||
rapid increase in TMR from food ingestion, is an effect called | food-induced thermogenesis
🗑
|
||||
food-induced thermogenesis is greatest when | proteins are ingested
🗑
|
||||
as ratio of body surface area to volume __, BMR increases | increases
🗑
|
||||
2 people of same weight __ will have more BMR | taller
🗑
|
||||
BMR decreases with | age
🗑
|
||||
BMR increases with | temperature or stress
🗑
|
||||
BMR in males is | higher
🗑
|
||||
__ hormone increases BMR | thyroid
🗑
|
||||
reflects balance btwn heat production & heat loss | body temperature
🗑
|
||||
liver, heart, brain, & endocrine organs generate most heat when | body at rest
🗑
|
||||
heat production from skeletal muscles increases 30-40 times that of rest of body | during exercise
🗑
|
||||
37°C (98.6°F) | normal body temperature
🗑
|
||||
occurs at 37°C (98.6°F) | optimal enzyme activity
🗑
|
||||
beta oxidation results in | fatty acid chains being broken down
🗑
|
||||
glycolysis results in | pyruvic acid
🗑
|
||||
Krebs cycle initial metabolite is | citric acid
🗑
|
||||
oxidative phosphorylation requires | ATP synthase at end
🗑
|
||||
comprised of simple sugars; used as major fuel source for cellular respiration | carbohydrate
🗑
|
||||
comprised of amino acids; used to build structural components of cells as well as functional components (enzymes) | protein
🗑
|
||||
comprised of fatty acids & glycerol; should be 20%-35% of caloric intake | lipids
🗑
|
||||
comprised of electrolytes; important as cofactors | minerals
🗑
|
||||
small organic molecules; important as coenzymes; fat-soluble forms are A, D, E, and K | vitamins
🗑
|
||||
carbohydrates | provide primary source of fuel for ATP synthesis
🗑
|
||||
lipids | act as an accessory fuel; component of membranes
🗑
|
||||
proteins | important structural material (keratin, collagen, etc.) and functional material (enzymes, etc.)
🗑
|
||||
vitamins | most function as coenzymes; not used as structural components
🗑
|
||||
minerals | incorporation into some body structures; used in conjunction with enzymes
🗑
|
||||
water | solvent for chemical reactions in body
🗑
|
||||
vitamin A required for | synthesis of photoreceptor pigments in vision; integrity of skin, mucosae, & normal bone; tooth development
🗑
|
||||
vitamin E | primarily an antioxidant preventing oxidative damage to cell membranes & atherosclerosis
🗑
|
||||
vitamin D | enhances absorption of calcium; works in conjunction with hormones regulating calcium blood levels
🗑
|
||||
vitamin K | essential for formation of clotting proteins; intermediate in electron transport; participates in oxidative phosphorylation
🗑
|
||||
vitamin C | important in formation of connective tissues; antioxidant; conversion of tryptophan to serotonin; conversion of cholesterol to bile salts
🗑
|
||||
vitamin B1 (thiamine) | acts as coenzyme in carbohydrate metabolism; required to transform pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA; oxidation of alcohol
🗑
|
||||
vitamin B2 (riboflavin) | acts as hydrogen acceptor in electron transport (FAD and FMN); component of amino-acid oxidases
🗑
|
||||
niacin | acts as hydrogen acceptor in electron transport (NAD) during glycolysis & Krebs cycle; inhibits cholesterol synthesis; peripheral vasodilator
🗑
|
||||
folic acid | basis of coenzymes in formation of certain amino acids, choline, DNA, RBCs, & normal neural tube development in embryo
🗑
|
||||
vitamin B12 | functions as coenzyme in all cells; acts in synthesis of DNA; essential for erythrocyte division during RBC production
🗑
|
||||
food sources of calcium | milk, milk products, leafy green vegetables, egg yolk, shellfish
🗑
|
||||
food sources of sulfur | meat, milk, eggs, legumes
🗑
|
||||
food sources of potassium | avocados, dried apricots, meat, fish, fowl, cereals, bananas
🗑
|
||||
food sources of sodium | cured meats, sauerkraut, cheese
🗑
|
||||
food sources of magnesium | milk, dairy products, whole grain cereals, nuts, legumes, leafy green vegetables
🗑
|
||||
food sources of phosphorus | diets rich in proteins; milk, eggs meat, fish, poultry, legumes, nuts, whole grains
🗑
|
||||
two molecules of pyruvic acid and two NADH + H+ | products of glycolysis
🗑
|
||||
five carbon dioxide molecules and ten molecules of reduced coenzymes (NADH + H+ and FADH2) | products of Krebs cycle
🗑
|
||||
36 ATP and 12 H2O molecules | products of electron transport chain & oxidative phosphorylation
🗑
|
||||
major means for conserving heat is | vasoconstriction of cutaneous blood vessels
🗑
|
||||
in glycolysis, glucose must be activated with the use of | 2 ATP molecules
🗑
|
||||
most vitamins function as coenzymes in the body; coenzymes help | catalyze chemical reactions
🗑
|
||||
one function of vitamin A is to | form visual pigments
🗑
|
||||
are derived from vitamin A | retinol in the rods and cones
🗑
|
||||
thyroxine is hormone responsible for | setting the basal metabolic rate
🗑
|
||||
site of electron transport is | mitochondrial inner membrane (cristae)
🗑
|
||||
inner membrane of the mitochondrion contains | integral proteins necessary for electron transport
🗑
|
||||
coenzyme reduced in both glycolysis and the Krebs cycle | NAD
🗑
|
||||
element is considered a trace mineral | chromium
🗑
|
||||
lipoprotein contains high levels of cholesterol | LDL
🗑
|
||||
LDL is | nearly 1/2 cholesterol
🗑
|
||||
nutritionally incomplete protein lacks | one of the essential amino acids needed by the body
🗑
|
||||
most of the ATP produced during cellular respiration is produced by | oxidative phosphorylation during electron transport
🗑
|
||||
mobilize glucose reserves by glycogenolysis | function of the liver during the post-absorptive state
🗑
|
||||
insulin is hormone that controls essentially all | events of the absorptive state
🗑
|
||||
factor that makes it harder for an obese person to lose weight | increase in alpha receptors (the kind that favor fat accumulation) in fat cells
🗑
|
||||
BMR is | amount of energy the body needs to maintain life
🗑
|
||||
shivering is | physiological response to hypothermia
🗑
|
||||
prolonged high protein intake can lead to | loss of bone mass
🗑
|
||||
beta-carotene is | considered a provitamin
🗑
|
||||
fat-soluble vitamin, which is eliminated by the kidney and, therefore is not stored in the body | vitamin K
🗑
|
||||
two molecules of pyruvic acid, two molecules of NAD+, and a net gain of two ATP is | final product of glycolysis
🗑
|
||||
cyanide acts as a poison by | interfering with the flow of electrons in the electron transport chain
🗑
|
||||
blood glucose is maintained by gluconeogenesis when | fasting for several weeks
🗑
|
||||
low-density lipoprotein would contain | high lipid content
🗑
|
||||
role of high-density lipoproteins is to | transport excessive cholesterol from peripheral tissue to the liver, where it is broken down and becomes part of bile
🗑
|
||||
official medical measurement of obesity is | body mass index
🗑
|
||||
leptin acts to suppress appetite by | inhibiting neuropeptide Y, which is the most-powerful known appetite stimulant
🗑
|
||||
in a redox reaction coenzymes | accept hydrogen
🗑
|
||||
ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is | an antioxidant
🗑
|
||||
fermentation occurs when | oxygen is NOT available
🗑
|
||||
in glycolysis, glucose is initially cleaved into | two, three-carbon groups
🗑
|
||||
in order for amino acids to be converted into lipids, | they must be deaminated
🗑
|
||||
oxidative phosphorylation is coupled to | chemiosmosis
🗑
|
||||
electron transport causes a chemiosmotic gradient, which causes | oxidative phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
🗑
|
||||
before lipids can be metabolized | fatty acids must undergo beta oxidation to be converted into two-carbon acetic acid fragments
🗑
|
||||
gluconeogenesis is | formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors
🗑
|
||||
major function of HDL is to | transport excess cholesterol from peripheral tissues to the liver
🗑
|
||||
calcium is | a mineral
🗑
|
||||
glucose is exclusive energy source for | neurons
🗑
|
||||
cholesterol serves as | precursor to hormones and maintains the fluidity of the plasma membrane
🗑
|
||||
protein is used to | build enzymes
🗑
|
||||
vitamins can function | as coenzymes
🗑
|
||||
person who is starving is likely to exhibit | negative nitrogen balance
🗑
|
||||
if consumed in large quantities | fat-soluble vitamins can be toxic
🗑
|
||||
Krebs cycle generates | rich supply of the reduced coenzymes, NADH and FADH2
🗑
|
||||
final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain is | O2
🗑
|
||||
glycogenesis | formation of glycogen to store glucose
🗑
|
||||
glycogenolysis | cleavage of glycogen to release glucose
🗑
|
||||
gluconeogenesis | process of forming new glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules
🗑
|
||||
beta oxidation | starts phase of fatty acid breakdown
🗑
|
||||
lipogenesis | triglyceride synthesis
🗑
|
||||
as proteins are broken down for energy __ is generated; the liver then converts this potentially toxic intermediate into __ | ammonia; urea
🗑
|
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in the absorptive state insulin serves as | regulatory hormone
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in the postabsorptive state glycogen is | broken down to release glucose
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leptin is considered | long-term regulator of food intake
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Review the information in the table. When you are ready to quiz yourself you can hide individual columns or the entire table. Then you can click on the empty cells to reveal the answer. Try to recall what will be displayed before clicking the empty cell.
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To hide a column, click on the column name.
To hide the entire table, click on the "Hide All" button.
You may also shuffle the rows of the table by clicking on the "Shuffle" button.
Or sort by any of the columns using the down arrow next to any column heading.
If you know all the data on any row, you can temporarily remove it by tapping the trash can to the right of the row.
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Created by:
lfrancois
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