Biomechanics 2010
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| Leonardo da Vinci | Functional anatomy
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| Giovanni Borelli | Father of Biomechanics (book: De Motu Animatum)
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| Edward J. Muybridge | Serial photographs; triggered multiple cameras in temporal sequence
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| Etienne-Jules Marey | Chronophotographs; Machine gun camera (improved on Muybridge's technique); put sensors on body
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| Anatomical Reference | Body parts involved in the movement and corresponding direction of movement
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| Key variables of kinematics | Position, velocity, acceleration
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| Linear motion (translation) | Rectilinear (straight path); curvilinear (curved path)
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| Angular motion (rotation) | Body moves about an axis of rotation
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| Sir Isaac Newton | Laws of motion
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| Newton's First Law of Motion | Law of Inertia: A body at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by a net external force
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| Newton's Second Law of Motion | Law of Acceleration: Sigma F=ma
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| Newton's Third Law of Motion | Law of Action-Reaction: For every action, there is a reaction equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
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| External forces acting on body | Gravity, Ground reaction force (normal force), Friction, Fluid forces (i.e. air resistance)
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| Internal forces acting on body | Muscle force: force generated by muscle contractions
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| Factors affecting muscle force | Muscle activation (neural input); physiological cross-sectional area; muscle length; velocity of contraction
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| Anatomical reference position | Palms facing forward; head forward; feet slightly separated; arms hanging relaxed at sides
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| Superior | Towards the head (trunk)
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| Inferior | Towards the feet (trunk)
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| Anterior | Towards front of body
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| Posterior | Towards back of body
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| Medial | Toward midline of body (horizontal directional term)
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| Lateral | Away from midline of body (horizontal directional term)
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| Proximal | Closer to trunk (limbs)
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| Distal | Father away from trunk (limbs)
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| Anatomical references planes | Sagittal, transverse, frontal
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| Sagittal plane | Left and right (line through nose and belly button)
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| Transverse (horizontal) | Superior and inferior (line parallel to unibrow)
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| Frontal | Anterior and posterior (line cuts shoulder in half)
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| Planar movements | Movement within a plane: movement is parallel to plane
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| Anatomical reference axes | Longitudinal, anteroposterior, transverse
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| Longitudinal axis | Transverse plane
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| Anteroposterior axis | Frontal plane
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| Transverse axis | Sagittal plane
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| Sagittal plane joint movements | Flexion/extension; plantar flexion/dorsiflexion
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| Flexion | Relative angle between 2 adjacent segments decreases
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| Extension | Relative angle between 2 adjacent segments increases
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| Hyperextension | Extension beyond anatomical position
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| Plantar flexion | Point toes down into ground (ankle joint movement)
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| Dorsiflexion | Point toes to the sky (ankle joint movement)
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| Frontal plane joint movements | Abduction/adduction; radial/ulnar deviation; inversion/eversion; left/right lateral flexion; elevation/depression
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| Abduction | Movement away from midline
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| Adduction | Movement toward midline
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| Radial deviation | Movement toward radial styloid (wrist)
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| Ulnar deviation | Movement toward ulnar styloid (wrist)
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| Inversion | Internal movement of foot at the subtalar joint; classic ankle sprain
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| Eversion | External movement of the foot at the ankle
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| Left/right lateral flexion | Leaning left/right at trunk or head; direction corresponds to the moving object
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| Elevation and depression | Shrugging shoulders
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| Transverse plane joint movements | Medial/lateral rotation; horizontal adduction/abduction; supination/pronation; left/right rotation
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| Medial (internal) rotation | Anterior surface rotates medially
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| Lateral (external) rotation | Anterior surface rotates laterally
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| Horizontal adduction | Movement towards midline (hug)
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| Horizontal abduction | Movement away from midline (release a hug)
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| Supination | Rotate thumb laterally (hold soup)
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| Pronation | Rotate thumb medially (dump soup)
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| Left/right rotation | Anterior surface movement (shake head no)
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| Functions of the skeletal system | Organ protection; weight bearing; lever system; mineral reservoir (Ca, P); Hematopoiesis (red blood cell formation)
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| Long bones | Shaft plus two expanded ends; all bones of limbs (except carpals, tarsals, and patella); used for leverage; outer layer-compact bone; inner layer-spongy bone
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| Trabeculae |
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| Short bones | Roughly cuboid in shape; carpals (8) and tarsals (7); shock absorption and force dissipation; strength not mobility
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| Flat bones | Thin, flattened, and usually curved; skull, ribs, sternum, scapula, ilium; provide protection
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| Sesamoid bones | Short bone embedded within tendon or joint capsule; patella; alters muscle insertion angle; biomechanical advantage
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| Irregular bones | Weird shapes that fit none of the other categories; vertebrae; protection (spinal cord), flexibility, load dissipation
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| Bone structure | Tissue consisting of cells and a significant amount of extracellular matrix
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| Bone cells | Osteoblasts; osteocytes; osteoclasts
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| Osteoblast | Bone-building cell
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| Osteocyte | Mature bone cell
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| Osteoclast | Bone-digesting cell
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| Long bone structure | Shaft; expanded ends; epiphyseal disks
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| Diaphysis | Shaft of a long bone
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| Epiphyses | Expanded ends of a long bone
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| Growth plates | Epiphyseal disks of the long bone; cartilage separating epiphyses from diaphysis
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| Periosteum | Double-layered membrane covering the external surface of the entire bone, except for the joint surfaces of the epiphyses
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| Outer layer of a long bone | Fibrous connective tissue
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| Inner layer of a long bone | Osteoblasts
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| Endosteum | Covers internal bone surfaces of the long bone; contains both osteoblasts and osteocytes
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| Longitudinal bone growth | Occurs near the epiphyseal disk; osteoblast activity > osteoclast activity; plate ossifies around age 18-25
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| Circumferential bone growth | Continues throughout lifespan; widened medullary cavity
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| Mechanical loading of the bone | Compression (push both ends in); tension (pull both ends out); shear (cut in half); torsion (twist around a transverse axis); bending
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| Wolff's Law | The form of a bone being given, the bone elements place or displace themselves in the direction of functional forces and increase or decrease their mass to reflect the amount of functional forces; build up bones in response to a force (take away, lack of)
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| Osteoporosis | Disease characterized by low bone mass and deterioration of bone tissue (i.e. trabecular bone); osteoclast activity > osteoblast activity; affects more women than men (loss of estrogen in menopause)
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| Joints | Exist wherever 2 or more bones meet; approx. 100; ALL human movement occurs about one or more joints
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| Classification of joints | Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial
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| Fibrous joints | Thick connective tissue; no movement; sutures-bone interlock (cranial bones); syndesmoses-bones held together by ligaments (distal tibiofibular: by ankle joint)
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| Cartilaginous joints | Slight movement; synchondroses (costal cartilage, epiphyseal plate); symphyses-dissipate forces (intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis)
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| Synovial (diarthroidal) joints | Free movement; ball and socket, condyloid, hinge, pivot, gliding, saddle
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| Ball and socket joint | Triaxial; flexion/extension, internal/external rotation, abduction/adduction; shoulder, hip
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| Condyloid joint | Biaxial; flexion/extension, internal/external rotation; knee
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| Hinge joint | Uniaxial; flexion/extension; elbow, ankle
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| Pivot joint | Uniaxial; supination/pronation; longitudinal axis; radioulnar joint
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| Gliding joint | No axes: glides between 2 flat bones; carpals, tarsals
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| Saddle joint | Biaxial; same as condyloid but greater ROM; thumb
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| Structure of a synovial joint | Articular (hyaline) cartilage; fibrous capsule; synovial membrane; ligaments
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| Articular (hyaline) cartilage | Smooth elastic tissue on ends of bone; mostly water; reduce wear, distribute load, absorb shock, low friction surface
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| Joint capsule | Fibrous capsule and synovial membrane
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| Fibrous capsule | Very fibrous collagen tissue used to hold bones together
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| Synovial membrane | Lines the joint cavity; secretes synovial fluid; lubricates and provides nutrition
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| Ligaments | Connect bone to bone; usually restrict ROM
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| Major bones of the upper extremity | Scapula, humerus, ulna, radius, carpals (8), metacarpals (5), phalanges (14)
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| Major joints of the upper extremity | Shoulder (glenohumeral); elbow (humeroulnar-elbow proper, proximal radioulnar); wrist (radiocarpal, distal radioulnar); metacapophalangeal (5 knuckles)
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| Shoulder joint bones | Acromion process; scapula, scapular spine; humerus
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| Shoulder joints | Glenohumeral joint; acromioclavicular joint, sternoclavicular joint, acromioclavicular, coracoclavicular
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| Rotator cuff | Prevents your arm from launching off (in throwing, etc.); supraspinatus, subscapularis, infraspinatus, teres minor
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| Shoulder flexion | Anterior deltoid, pectoralis major, biceps brachii
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| Shoulder extension | Latissimus dorsi, triceps brachii
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| Shoulder adduction | Pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi
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| Shoulder abduction | Intermediate deltoid
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| Shoulder scapular stabilization | Trapezius
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| Elbow joint bones | Humerus, radius, ulna
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| Elbow joints | Humeroulnar joint (true elbow joint), proximal radioulnar joint
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| Elbow flexion | Biceps brachii, brachialis
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| Elbow extension | Triceps brachii
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| Supination/pronation | Radioulnar joint; supinator/pronator quadratus
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| Wrist joints and bones | Radius, ulna, carpals; radiocarpal joint
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| Wrist flexion | Flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor carpi radialis
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| Wrist extension | Extensor carpi ulnaris, extensor carpi radialis longus
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| Ulnar deviation | Flexor carpi ulnaris, extensor carpi ulnaris
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| Radial deviation | Flexor carpi radialis, extensor carpi radialis longus
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| Hand joints and bones | Metacarpals, phalanges; metacarpophalangeal joints (5 knuckles)
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| Metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal flexion | Flexor digitorum superficialis
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| Metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal extension | Extensor digitorum
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| Segments of the Spinal Column | Cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacrum (5), coccyx (4)
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| Movement segment (vertebrae) | 2 adjacent vertebrae + 1 intervertebral disk
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| Articulations of the spinal cord | 2 transverse processes, 1 spinous process; Muscle attachment sites
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| Lordosis | Too much lumbar curve
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| Kyphosis | Too much thoracic curve
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| Trunk flexion | Rectus abdominus, psoas major
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| Trunk extension | Erector spinae group
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| Lateral flexion/rotation | Internal and external oblique
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| Major bones of the lower extremity | Pelvis; femur; tibia; fibula; patella; tarsals (7): talus, calcaneous; metatarsals (5); phalanges (14)
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| Major joints of the lower extremity | Hip, knee, ankle, subtalar, metatarsophalangeal
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| Pelvic girdle | Ilium, pubis, ischium
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| Ball and socket joint of the hip | Acetabulum + femoral head; highly mobile
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| Ligaments of the hip joint | Iliofemoral, pubofemoral, ischiofemoral
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| Iliofemoral ligament | Limits hyperextension, hyperadduction
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| Pubofemoral ligament | Limits hyperextension, abduction
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| Ischiofemoral ligament | Limits hyperextension, hyperadduction
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| Hip flexion | Iliopsoas (groin), rectus femoris (part of quads), sartorius ("Tailor's muscle")
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| Hip extension | Gluteus maximus, hamstrings (semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps femoris)
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| Hip abduction | Gluteus medius (role in bipedal gait)
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| Hip adduction | Adductor magnus, adductor longus, adductor brevis
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| Hip pointer (ultimate) | Iliac crest fracture
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| Knee joint bones | Femur, femoral condyles, menisci, patella, tibial plateaus, tibia
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| Knee joint ligaments | Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), posterior cruciate ligament (PCL); lateral collateral ligament (LCL), medial collateral ligament (MCL)
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| Cruciate ligaments | Limit anterior/posterior sliding (of the tibia with respect to the femur); ACL, PCL
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| Collateral ligaments | Limit abduction/adduction; LCL, MCL
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| Knee extensors | Quadriceps (vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis, rectus femoris)
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| Knee flexors | Hamstrings (semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps femoris), gastrocnemius, sartorius
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| Ankle joint parts | Fibula, tibia, medial malleolus, lateral malleolus (malleoli limit inversion/eversion), talus
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| Dorsiflexion (ankle) | Tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus
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| Plantar flexion (ankle) | Gastrocnemius, soleus
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| Subtalar joint bones | Talus, calcaneous, metatarsals, phalanges
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| Subtalar ligaments | Lateral collateral ligament (limits inversion), deltoid ligaments (limits eversion)
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| Inversion (subtalar) | Tibialis anterior
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| Eversion (subtalar) | Peroneus longus
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| Metatarsophalangeal flexion | Flexor digitorum longus
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| Metatarsophalangeal extension | Extensor digitorum longus
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