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Biomechanics 2010
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Leonardo da Vinci | Functional anatomy |
| Giovanni Borelli | Father of Biomechanics (book: De Motu Animatum) |
| Edward J. Muybridge | Serial photographs; triggered multiple cameras in temporal sequence |
| Etienne-Jules Marey | Chronophotographs; Machine gun camera (improved on Muybridge's technique); put sensors on body |
| Anatomical Reference | Body parts involved in the movement and corresponding direction of movement |
| Key variables of kinematics | Position, velocity, acceleration |
| Linear motion (translation) | Rectilinear (straight path); curvilinear (curved path) |
| Angular motion (rotation) | Body moves about an axis of rotation |
| Sir Isaac Newton | Laws of motion |
| Newton's First Law of Motion | Law of Inertia: A body at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by a net external force |
| Newton's Second Law of Motion | Law of Acceleration: Sigma F=ma |
| Newton's Third Law of Motion | Law of Action-Reaction: For every action, there is a reaction equal in magnitude and opposite in direction |
| External forces acting on body | Gravity, Ground reaction force (normal force), Friction, Fluid forces (i.e. air resistance) |
| Internal forces acting on body | Muscle force: force generated by muscle contractions |
| Factors affecting muscle force | Muscle activation (neural input); physiological cross-sectional area; muscle length; velocity of contraction |
| Anatomical reference position | Palms facing forward; head forward; feet slightly separated; arms hanging relaxed at sides |
| Superior | Towards the head (trunk) |
| Inferior | Towards the feet (trunk) |
| Anterior | Towards front of body |
| Posterior | Towards back of body |
| Medial | Toward midline of body (horizontal directional term) |
| Lateral | Away from midline of body (horizontal directional term) |
| Proximal | Closer to trunk (limbs) |
| Distal | Father away from trunk (limbs) |
| Anatomical references planes | Sagittal, transverse, frontal |
| Sagittal plane | Left and right (line through nose and belly button) |
| Transverse (horizontal) | Superior and inferior (line parallel to unibrow) |
| Frontal | Anterior and posterior (line cuts shoulder in half) |
| Planar movements | Movement within a plane: movement is parallel to plane |
| Anatomical reference axes | Longitudinal, anteroposterior, transverse |
| Longitudinal axis | Transverse plane |
| Anteroposterior axis | Frontal plane |
| Transverse axis | Sagittal plane |
| Sagittal plane joint movements | Flexion/extension; plantar flexion/dorsiflexion |
| Flexion | Relative angle between 2 adjacent segments decreases |
| Extension | Relative angle between 2 adjacent segments increases |
| Hyperextension | Extension beyond anatomical position |
| Plantar flexion | Point toes down into ground (ankle joint movement) |
| Dorsiflexion | Point toes to the sky (ankle joint movement) |
| Frontal plane joint movements | Abduction/adduction; radial/ulnar deviation; inversion/eversion; left/right lateral flexion; elevation/depression |
| Abduction | Movement away from midline |
| Adduction | Movement toward midline |
| Radial deviation | Movement toward radial styloid (wrist) |
| Ulnar deviation | Movement toward ulnar styloid (wrist) |
| Inversion | Internal movement of foot at the subtalar joint; classic ankle sprain |
| Eversion | External movement of the foot at the ankle |
| Left/right lateral flexion | Leaning left/right at trunk or head; direction corresponds to the moving object |
| Elevation and depression | Shrugging shoulders |
| Transverse plane joint movements | Medial/lateral rotation; horizontal adduction/abduction; supination/pronation; left/right rotation |
| Medial (internal) rotation | Anterior surface rotates medially |
| Lateral (external) rotation | Anterior surface rotates laterally |
| Horizontal adduction | Movement towards midline (hug) |
| Horizontal abduction | Movement away from midline (release a hug) |
| Supination | Rotate thumb laterally (hold soup) |
| Pronation | Rotate thumb medially (dump soup) |
| Left/right rotation | Anterior surface movement (shake head no) |
| Functions of the skeletal system | Organ protection; weight bearing; lever system; mineral reservoir (Ca, P); Hematopoiesis (red blood cell formation) |
| Long bones | Shaft plus two expanded ends; all bones of limbs (except carpals, tarsals, and patella); used for leverage; outer layer-compact bone; inner layer-spongy bone |
| Trabeculae | |
| Short bones | Roughly cuboid in shape; carpals (8) and tarsals (7); shock absorption and force dissipation; strength not mobility |
| Flat bones | Thin, flattened, and usually curved; skull, ribs, sternum, scapula, ilium; provide protection |
| Sesamoid bones | Short bone embedded within tendon or joint capsule; patella; alters muscle insertion angle; biomechanical advantage |
| Irregular bones | Weird shapes that fit none of the other categories; vertebrae; protection (spinal cord), flexibility, load dissipation |
| Bone structure | Tissue consisting of cells and a significant amount of extracellular matrix |
| Bone cells | Osteoblasts; osteocytes; osteoclasts |
| Osteoblast | Bone-building cell |
| Osteocyte | Mature bone cell |
| Osteoclast | Bone-digesting cell |
| Long bone structure | Shaft; expanded ends; epiphyseal disks |
| Diaphysis | Shaft of a long bone |
| Epiphyses | Expanded ends of a long bone |
| Growth plates | Epiphyseal disks of the long bone; cartilage separating epiphyses from diaphysis |
| Periosteum | Double-layered membrane covering the external surface of the entire bone, except for the joint surfaces of the epiphyses |
| Outer layer of a long bone | Fibrous connective tissue |
| Inner layer of a long bone | Osteoblasts |
| Endosteum | Covers internal bone surfaces of the long bone; contains both osteoblasts and osteocytes |
| Longitudinal bone growth | Occurs near the epiphyseal disk; osteoblast activity > osteoclast activity; plate ossifies around age 18-25 |
| Circumferential bone growth | Continues throughout lifespan; widened medullary cavity |
| Mechanical loading of the bone | Compression (push both ends in); tension (pull both ends out); shear (cut in half); torsion (twist around a transverse axis); bending |
| Wolff's Law | The form of a bone being given, the bone elements place or displace themselves in the direction of functional forces and increase or decrease their mass to reflect the amount of functional forces; build up bones in response to a force (take away, lack of) |
| Osteoporosis | Disease characterized by low bone mass and deterioration of bone tissue (i.e. trabecular bone); osteoclast activity > osteoblast activity; affects more women than men (loss of estrogen in menopause) |
| Joints | Exist wherever 2 or more bones meet; approx. 100; ALL human movement occurs about one or more joints |
| Classification of joints | Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial |
| Fibrous joints | Thick connective tissue; no movement; sutures-bone interlock (cranial bones); syndesmoses-bones held together by ligaments (distal tibiofibular: by ankle joint) |
| Cartilaginous joints | Slight movement; synchondroses (costal cartilage, epiphyseal plate); symphyses-dissipate forces (intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis) |
| Synovial (diarthroidal) joints | Free movement; ball and socket, condyloid, hinge, pivot, gliding, saddle |
| Ball and socket joint | Triaxial; flexion/extension, internal/external rotation, abduction/adduction; shoulder, hip |
| Condyloid joint | Biaxial; flexion/extension, internal/external rotation; knee |
| Hinge joint | Uniaxial; flexion/extension; elbow, ankle |
| Pivot joint | Uniaxial; supination/pronation; longitudinal axis; radioulnar joint |
| Gliding joint | No axes: glides between 2 flat bones; carpals, tarsals |
| Saddle joint | Biaxial; same as condyloid but greater ROM; thumb |
| Structure of a synovial joint | Articular (hyaline) cartilage; fibrous capsule; synovial membrane; ligaments |
| Articular (hyaline) cartilage | Smooth elastic tissue on ends of bone; mostly water; reduce wear, distribute load, absorb shock, low friction surface |
| Joint capsule | Fibrous capsule and synovial membrane |
| Fibrous capsule | Very fibrous collagen tissue used to hold bones together |
| Synovial membrane | Lines the joint cavity; secretes synovial fluid; lubricates and provides nutrition |
| Ligaments | Connect bone to bone; usually restrict ROM |
| Major bones of the upper extremity | Scapula, humerus, ulna, radius, carpals (8), metacarpals (5), phalanges (14) |
| Major joints of the upper extremity | Shoulder (glenohumeral); elbow (humeroulnar-elbow proper, proximal radioulnar); wrist (radiocarpal, distal radioulnar); metacapophalangeal (5 knuckles) |
| Shoulder joint bones | Acromion process; scapula, scapular spine; humerus |
| Shoulder joints | Glenohumeral joint; acromioclavicular joint, sternoclavicular joint, acromioclavicular, coracoclavicular |
| Rotator cuff | Prevents your arm from launching off (in throwing, etc.); supraspinatus, subscapularis, infraspinatus, teres minor |
| Shoulder flexion | Anterior deltoid, pectoralis major, biceps brachii |
| Shoulder extension | Latissimus dorsi, triceps brachii |
| Shoulder adduction | Pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi |
| Shoulder abduction | Intermediate deltoid |
| Shoulder scapular stabilization | Trapezius |
| Elbow joint bones | Humerus, radius, ulna |
| Elbow joints | Humeroulnar joint (true elbow joint), proximal radioulnar joint |
| Elbow flexion | Biceps brachii, brachialis |
| Elbow extension | Triceps brachii |
| Supination/pronation | Radioulnar joint; supinator/pronator quadratus |
| Wrist joints and bones | Radius, ulna, carpals; radiocarpal joint |
| Wrist flexion | Flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor carpi radialis |
| Wrist extension | Extensor carpi ulnaris, extensor carpi radialis longus |
| Ulnar deviation | Flexor carpi ulnaris, extensor carpi ulnaris |
| Radial deviation | Flexor carpi radialis, extensor carpi radialis longus |
| Hand joints and bones | Metacarpals, phalanges; metacarpophalangeal joints (5 knuckles) |
| Metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal flexion | Flexor digitorum superficialis |
| Metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal extension | Extensor digitorum |
| Segments of the Spinal Column | Cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacrum (5), coccyx (4) |
| Movement segment (vertebrae) | 2 adjacent vertebrae + 1 intervertebral disk |
| Articulations of the spinal cord | 2 transverse processes, 1 spinous process; Muscle attachment sites |
| Lordosis | Too much lumbar curve |
| Kyphosis | Too much thoracic curve |
| Trunk flexion | Rectus abdominus, psoas major |
| Trunk extension | Erector spinae group |
| Lateral flexion/rotation | Internal and external oblique |
| Major bones of the lower extremity | Pelvis; femur; tibia; fibula; patella; tarsals (7): talus, calcaneous; metatarsals (5); phalanges (14) |
| Major joints of the lower extremity | Hip, knee, ankle, subtalar, metatarsophalangeal |
| Pelvic girdle | Ilium, pubis, ischium |
| Ball and socket joint of the hip | Acetabulum + femoral head; highly mobile |
| Ligaments of the hip joint | Iliofemoral, pubofemoral, ischiofemoral |
| Iliofemoral ligament | Limits hyperextension, hyperadduction |
| Pubofemoral ligament | Limits hyperextension, abduction |
| Ischiofemoral ligament | Limits hyperextension, hyperadduction |
| Hip flexion | Iliopsoas (groin), rectus femoris (part of quads), sartorius ("Tailor's muscle") |
| Hip extension | Gluteus maximus, hamstrings (semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps femoris) |
| Hip abduction | Gluteus medius (role in bipedal gait) |
| Hip adduction | Adductor magnus, adductor longus, adductor brevis |
| Hip pointer (ultimate) | Iliac crest fracture |
| Knee joint bones | Femur, femoral condyles, menisci, patella, tibial plateaus, tibia |
| Knee joint ligaments | Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), posterior cruciate ligament (PCL); lateral collateral ligament (LCL), medial collateral ligament (MCL) |
| Cruciate ligaments | Limit anterior/posterior sliding (of the tibia with respect to the femur); ACL, PCL |
| Collateral ligaments | Limit abduction/adduction; LCL, MCL |
| Knee extensors | Quadriceps (vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis, rectus femoris) |
| Knee flexors | Hamstrings (semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps femoris), gastrocnemius, sartorius |
| Ankle joint parts | Fibula, tibia, medial malleolus, lateral malleolus (malleoli limit inversion/eversion), talus |
| Dorsiflexion (ankle) | Tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus |
| Plantar flexion (ankle) | Gastrocnemius, soleus |
| Subtalar joint bones | Talus, calcaneous, metatarsals, phalanges |
| Subtalar ligaments | Lateral collateral ligament (limits inversion), deltoid ligaments (limits eversion) |
| Inversion (subtalar) | Tibialis anterior |
| Eversion (subtalar) | Peroneus longus |
| Metatarsophalangeal flexion | Flexor digitorum longus |
| Metatarsophalangeal extension | Extensor digitorum longus |
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