Enzymes and important steps
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| Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) Carboxykinase | -Catalyzes second step of Gluconeogenesis
-Oxaloacetate (4c) to PEP (3C) by using a GTP and removing a CO2
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| Palmitate | - End Product of fatty acid synthesis
-Moved to Smooth ER for manipulation
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| Hormone Blood Sugar Regulation | -Insulin secreted when high
Increases Fruc2,6-BP to upregulate PFK and Glycolysis
-Glucagon Secreted when low
Decreases Fruc2,6-BP to downregulate PFK and Glycolysis
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| Glycogen Metabolism Enzymes | -Phosphoglucomutase
Switches phosphate groups between 1/6 carbon
-Glycogen synthase
Cleaves phosphate group on C1 to add to glycogen chain
-Glycogen phosphatase
Breaks down glycogen by phosphorylating glucose on C1
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| Fatty Acid Oxidation Products per round | Saturated Fat
-1 FADH2, 1 NADH, 1 Acetyl CoA
Unsaturated Fat
-1 NADH, 1 Acetyl CoA
Occurs in Mitochondrial Matrix
2 equivalents of ATP are required to prime each Fatty Acid not each round
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| Hexokinase | -Catalyzes first step of glycolysis
Glucose to Glucose 6P by adding a phosphate group on C6 using 1 ATP
Regulated via Glucose 6P negative feedback inhibition
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| PFK (Phosphofructokinase) | -Catalyzes third step of glycolysis - highly regulated
Fructose 6-P to Fructose 1,6-BP by adding a phosphate group on C1 using 1 ATP
- Upregulated by AMP and Fruc2,6-BP
-Downregulated by ATP and Citrate
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| Pyruvate Kinase | -Catalyzes last step in glycolysis
PEP to Pyruvate by removing a phosphate group and gaining 1 ATP
Occurs twice per glucose
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| PDC | Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex
-Pyruvate and CoA forms Acetyl CoA and CO2 and makes 1 NADH
-Occurs twice per glucose
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| GAP to PEP | Glyceraldehyde 3 Phosphate to Phosphoenolpyruvate
-Makes 1 NADH and 1 ATP
Reverse reaction in Gluconeogenesis
-Uses 1 NADH and 1 ATP
Occurs twice per Glucose
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| Reciprocal Regulation | One molecule regulates 2 opposing enzymes in opposite ways
Examples - PFK/Fruc1,6-BPase
Citrate : -/+
AMP : +/-
ATP : -/+
Fruc2,6-BP : +/-
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| Glycogen Metabolism Steps | Glycogenesis when Blood Sugar is high signaled by Insulin
Glycogenolysis when Blood Sugar is low signaled by Glucagon
Epinephrine also with sympathetic activation
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| Fatty Acid Synthesis Activation | 1. Acetyl Carrier Protein (ACP) Binds Acetyl CoA and transfers it to Fatty Acid Synthase (FAS)
2. ACP then Binds Malonyl CoA
Occurs in Cytosol
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| Pyruvate Carboxylase | Catalyzes first step of Gluconeogenesis
Pyruvate to Oxaloacetate by adding a CO2 and using an ATP
Occurs twice per Glucose
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| Glucose 6-Phosphatase | Catalyzes last step of Gluconeogenesis
Glucose 6-P to Glucose by removing a phosphate group from C6
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| Ketone Bodies | Created by reacting 2 Acetyl CoA molecules together to create blood soluble nutrients for the brain
Acetone
Acetoacetate
B-Hydroxybutyrate
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| Glycolysis Input/Output | Input: 2 ATP, 1 Glucose, 2 NAD+
Output: 4 ATP, 2 Pyruvate, 2 NADH
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| Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphatase | Catalyzes third to last step in gluconeogenesis
Fructose 1,6-BP to Fructose 6-P by removing a phosphate group
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| Fatty Acid Oxidation Enzymes | Isomerase
-Moves up double bond in unsaturated fats (Skips FADH2 production)
Thiolase
-Cleaves off Acetyl CoA from larger molecule at the end.
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| Fatty Acid Synthesis Elongation | 1. Acetyl CoA on FAS combines with Malonyl CoA on ACP eliminating a CO2
2. Two rounds of reduction occur with NADPH
3. ACP transfers molecule back to FAS and binds additional Malonyl CoA
Occurs in Cytosol
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| Krebs Cycle Input/Output | Input: 1 Acetyl CoA, 1 GDP, 3 NAD+, 1 FAD+
Output: 1 CoA, 2 CO2, 1 GTP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2
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| Glucose 6-Phosphate dehydrogenase | Catalyzes Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) Oxidative phase
Oxidizes Glucose 6P to Ribulose 5P and creates 2 NADPH and 1 CO2
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| Electron Transport Chain Enzymes | 1. NADH Oxidase -4H+ (NADH enters here)
2. Coenzyme Q (FADH2 and Cytosol NADH enter here)
3. Cytochrome C Reductase -4H+
4. Cytochrome C
5. Cytochrome C Oxidase -2H+
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| Oxidative Phosphorylation | ATP synthase makes 1 ATP for every 4 H+ ions that travel across inner mitochondrial membrane by facilitated diffusion
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| ATP Produced per Glucose | PDC - 2 NADH = 5 ATP
Krebs (2 turns) - (1 turn = 10 ATP)
2 GTP = 2 ATP
6 NADH = 15 ATP
2 FADH2 = 3 ATP
Glycolysis
2 ATP (net) = 2 ATP
2 NADH = 3 ATP in Euk/5 in Prok
30 ATP in Euk/32 in Prok
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| Fermentation | Sole purpose to regenerate electron carriers
Pyruvate reduced by NADH to ETOH (Yeast) or Lactic Acid (Humans)
No new energy generation
Toxic end Products
No Oxygen Use
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