Chemistry
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| Avogadro's # | 6.022X10^23
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| Mass # | protons+neutrons
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| charge of electron | 1.6x10^-19 Coulombs
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| atomic # Z | # protons=#electrons unless it's charged
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| isotope | #neutrons change so mass changes but atomic #same
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| electron | - charge, closer to nucleus the lower energy level, less interaction w/environment
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| cation | gain + charge, loose e-, decrease radius, move to left of periodic table for e- config
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| anion | gain - charge, increase radius, move to right on periodic table for e- config
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| valence e- | VE=atomic group #
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| Plancks quantum theory | energy is emitted as electromagnetic radiation from matter exist as discrete bundles called quanta E=hf=hc/╗(wavelength) c=3.0X10^8m/s h=6.626x10^-34 J*s
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| Bohr Model | Predicted changes in discrete amounts w/ respect to n L=nh/2π
n=principal quantum # h=planck constant
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| Bohr Energy of electron | E=-Rh/n^2=-Rh(1/n^2initial-1/n^2final)
E=- absorption E=+ emission
E↑ negativity↓ n↑
e- goes from lower level to higher they AHED: Absorb light, Higher potential, Excited, Distant from nucleus
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| Energy of photon emmitted | E=hf=hc/wavelength
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| Lyman Series | Group of H emission lines corresponding to transition from upper levels n>1 to n=1
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| Balmer Series | From energy levels n>2 to n=2
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| Paschen Series | From energy levels n>3 to n=3
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| Absorption | energy bands when energy absorbed. see light emitted NOT absorbed
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| heisenberg Uncertainty Principle | uncertainty of position of a particle and it's momentum. You can know position but not momentum and vice versa ▲x▲p≥h/2
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| Pauli Exclusion Principle | No two e- in the same atom can have same four quantum #'s
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| Quantum Number Table | #1 principle (n) (1,2,3..) shell (energy level, # of period # on periodic table)
#2 azimuthal (l) (0,1..(n-1)) subshell: s L=0; p L=1; d L=2; f L=3
#3 magnetic (ml) (-L to L) orbital: px;py;pz
#4 spin (ms) (-1/2, +1/2) spin (↑↓)
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| Quantum number equation | # of total orbitals= n^2
# of e- within shell= 2n^2
# of e- within subshell= 4L +2
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| Aufbau Principle | each new proton added creates new element and each new e- occupies lowest energy level (n)
BOWLOW stability ↑ fill lowest n level with n+l if same pick lowest n
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| Electron configuration | 1) List shells &subshells of element e- from lowest to highest
2) Add subscript after each subshell to indicate # of e-
Ex: Fe: 1s2 2s23s23p64s23d6 or [Ar]4s23d6
Exception: Half & completely filled subshell preferred
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| Electron Config Exception | Exception: Half & completely filled subshell preferred
Ex: Cr: [Ar]4s23d4→[Ar]4s3d5
Anion: move toward RIGHT of element
Cation: move toward LEFT of element
Ex: [Br-]: [Ar]4s2 3d10 4p6
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| Hund's Rule | e- will NOT fill any orbital in the same subshell until all orbitals have at least 1 e-
ie: Fill them single than paired (↑↓)
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| Paramagnetic | elements with unpaired e-
Ex: Li 1s:↑↓ 2s:↑ & PARALLEL when external field applied
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| Diamagnetic | elements with NO unpaired e- & UNAFFECTED
Be: 1s:↑↓ 2s:↑↓
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| Periodic table trends | Across Periodic Table: ↑ Ionization Energy, Bond Order, Electron Affiinity, Zeff, Electronegativity
↓Atomic radius
Down Periodic Table: ↓Ionization Energy, Bond Order, Electron Affiinity, Electronegativity
↑Atomic radius, Zeff
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| Chemical properties of Periodic Table | Metals: Loose hold on outer e-, form cation, thermal &electrical conductive
Metalloids: Metal &nonmetal characteristics
Nonmetals: Form covalent bonds w/on another, form anion, ↓ melting pt
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| Atomic Radius | Distance from center of nucleus to valence e-
↑radius↓down periodic table→across table (R to L) due to protons weaker pull to e-
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| Electrostatic force | Force b/w charged objects (F=kQ1Q2/r^2); attractive b/w opp charges & repulsive b/w like
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| Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff) | Amount of charge felt by most recently added e-
↑Zeff←(L to R) ↓Top to bottom ↓shielding
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| Ionization energy | Energy required to detach an e- from atom ↑IE→(L to R)↑Bottom to top Why? e- are closer to nucleus
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| First vs Second IE | First IE: Energy required to detach 1 e- from neutral atom to form (+1) cation
Second IE: Energy required to detach 2 e- from neutral atom to form (+2) cation
Second IE>First IE b/c second IE more stable
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| Electronegativity | Tendency of atom to attract e- shared in covalent bond
The LARGER the diff b/w electronegativities the LARGER the polarity so ↑attraction
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| Electron Affinity | willingness of an atom to accept addition of e-
E RELEASED when e- added
↑EAffinity→(L to R)↑Bottom to top table
▲H is (-) & EXOTHERMIC to the right &up periodic table
▲H is (+) & ENDOTHERMIC for noble gases
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| octet rule | atom will bend until it has full outermost shell
similar to noble gases
Exceptions: some have less than 8e-;in or beyond 3rd period can have more than 8e- so more than 4 bonds
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| Lewis Structure Rules | 1) Find total # of valence e- for all atoms
2)Use pair of e- to form single bonds
3) arrange remaining e- into lone pairs &double or triple bond to satisfy duet/octet rule
Total # e-=Σvalence e-
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| Formal charge | VE-(Nnonbonding (dots)+ 1/2Nbonding (sticks))
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| Bond ranking | Ionic>covalent>hydrogen bonding>dipole-dipole>van der waals
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| Ionic bonding | -covalent bond where valence e- are transferred to one atom (unequal sharing) creating polarity
-most enegative atom attracts e-
-b/w metal &nonmetal
-High melting pt
-soluble in H2O & insoluble in nonpolar
conducts electricity in aqueous soln
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| Covalent bonding | -valence e- are shared equally
-similar enegativities
-soluble in nonpolar
-insoluble in H2O
-low melting pt and boiling pt
-nonconductor of heat & electricity
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| Dipole Moment | occur when (+) charge center is not same as (-) charge so e- are pulled to one side
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| Polarity | -determined by geometry of molecule (due to dipole orientation)
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| Intermolecular attraction Types | attraction b/w molecules due to dipole moment
1)London Forces (van der waals)
2) Hydrogen Bond
3) Dipole-dipole
4)Induced dipole
5) Instantaneous dipole moment
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| London Forces | weakest interactions b/w two instantaneous dipoles
↑size of atom/structure↑dispersion forces
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| Hydrogen bond | bond b/w H, N,O,F
involved in intra(b/w molecule) & inter(b/w 2 compounds) interactions
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| Dipole-Dipole | occurs b/w oppositely charged ends of polar molecules; stronger than London
evident in interactions in solid &liquid phase but negligible in gases
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| Induced Dipole | occurs when dipole moment is created in NON-POLAR molecule or bonded to a polar, ion molecule or electric field
-weaker than permanent dipoles
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| Instantaneous Dipole Moment | arise spontaneously in non-polar molecule
Why?
-e- move around & become uneven
create dipole in neighboring atoms
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| Bond Length | distance b/w two nuclei of atoms involved in bond
↑Shared e-↓Bond length
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| Bond Energy (Bond Dissociation Energy | energy required to break bond and separate components to gaseous state
↑Bond E↑Bond Strength↓Bond length
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| Realtionship b/w bond length, strength, &energy | Bond Length:
single bond >double bond>triple bond
Bond Strength:
single<double<triple
Bond Energy:
single<double<triple
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| Hybridization | sigma bond: bounding pair of e- found in space b/w bonding atoms
Lowest Energy; Strongest Most Stable
pi bond: overlapping p orbitals, More Reactive
↑s character↓bond length↑bond strength↑bond energy↑stability
sp (50:50)>sp2(33:66)>sp3(25:75)
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| Aromaticity &Huckel Rule | 4n+2π=# of e-
↑e- delocalization ↑stability
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| Resonance Structure | Molecule is an average of all resonance structure w/lowest energy & greatest stability
↓separation of charge ↑stability
↓formal charge on most atoms ↑stability
conjugate base of an acid exhibits resonance ↑stability so weaker base & stronger acid
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| Fisher Projection | OH
H ╪ H
H H
CH3
Horizontal lines(---): out of scope
vertical lines(: into page
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| Newman Projection | Anti: Θ=180
Gauche: Θ=60
Eclipsed Θ=120
Fully Eclipsed Θ=0
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| Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion(VSEPR) Geometry Linear (sp) & Trigonal planar (sp2) | [# of bonds=2] [#lone pairs=0] linear AX2
[#of bonds=3] [#lone pairs=0] trigonalplanar AX3
[#of bonds=2] [#lone pairs=1] bent AX2E1
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| Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion(VSEPR) Geometry Tetrahedral (sp3) | [#bonds=4][#lone pairs=0] tetrahedral AX4
[#bonds=3][#lone pairs=1] trigonal pyramidal AX3E1
[#bonds=2][#lone pairs=2] bent AX2E2
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| Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion(VSEPR) Geometry Trigonal bipyramidal (sp3d) | [#bonds=5][#lone pairs=0] trigonal bipyramidal AX5E0
[#bonds=4][#lone pairs=1] seesaw AX4E1
[#bonds=3][#lone pairs=2] T-shape AX3E2
[#bonds=2][#lone pairs=3] linear AX2E3
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| Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion(VSEPR) Geometry Octahedral (sp3d2) | [#bonds=6][#lone pairs=0] octahedral AX6E0
[#bonds=5][#lone pairs=1] square pyramidal AX5E1
[#bonds=4][#lone pairs=2] square planar AX4E2
[#bonds=3][#lone pairs=3] Tshaped AX3E3
[#bonds=2][#lone pairs=4] linear AX2E4
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