A&P.ch23.resp.spirometry
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| measuring lung function | compare's subject to normal range; identify diseases
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| compliance | measure of the ease with which the lungs & thorax expand
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| levels of compliance | expressed in LITERS (volume of air) per centimeter of water (pressure)
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| what is normal compliance? | 0.13L/cm H2O- for every 1 cm H2O change in alveolar pressure, the volume changes by 0.13L
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| the greater the compliance | the easier it is for a change in pressure to cause EXPANSION of lungs & thorax
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| Example of greater compliance | emphysema destroys elastic lung tissue; therefore, lungs expand (nothing to bring them back like an overstretched rubber band) and higher than-normal compliance
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| lower-than normal compliance (example) | pulmonary fibrosis - (non-elastic fibers in lung) so that lungs cannot expand
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| list of conditions that DECREASE compliance | pulmonary fibrosis - respiratory distress syndrome and pulmonary edema (both collapse alveoli) airway obstructions such as ashtma, bronchitis and lung cancer & deformities of thoracic wall such as scoliosis & khyphosis (wall cannot expand)
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| pulmonary volumes are measured by | spirometry - process of measruing volumes of air that move in & out of respiratory system
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| tidal volume (TV) | air inspired or expired with each breath
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| inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) | amount of air forcefully inspired (after quiet inspiration)
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| expiratory reserve volume (ERV) | volume of air forcefully expired (after a normal expiration)
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| Residual volume (RV) | volume of air remaining in the lungs after forceful expiration
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| Vital capacity (VC) | greatest extreme in air volume between inspiration & expiration
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| pulmonary capacities | sum of two or more pulmonary volumes
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| Inspiratory capacity | Tidal Volume TV plus Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) - amount of air that a person can inspire maximally (after normal breath)
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| Functional residual cpacity | Expiratory reserve volume plus resideula volume, which is amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of normal respiration
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| Vital capacity | IRV plus TV plu ERV
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| Total lung capacity | TLC - normal 6000-7500 mL
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| FEV - forced expiratory vital capacity | subject inspires maximally & then exhales maximally into a spirometer - as quickly as possible
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| FEV one | amount of air expired during the first second of the FEV test
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| minute volume | amount of air moved into & out of respiratory system each minute
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| minute volume is calculated | respiratory rate times TV tidal volume - normal about 12-18 breaths per minute
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| Average minute volume calculation | TV usually equals 500 mL times 12 breaths per minute or about 6 L/min
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| does minute ventialtion measure the amount of air available for gas exchange? | no, because some parts of lungs don't actually exchange gas - only the alveoli & alvolar ducts & respiratory bronchioles
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| dead space | where gas exchange does NOT take place--
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| anatomic dead space | nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bonchi bronchioles & terminal bronchioles
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| physiologic dead space | all of the anatomic dead space PLUS any alveoli where gas exchange is not normal
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| conditions which increase physiologic dead space | lung cancer, strep throat, emplysema (which degenerate alveolar walls)
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| dalton's law of partial pressure | in a mixture of gas, the "partial pressure" of each gas is added to make 100%; add nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide to get total pressure
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| what adds to partial pressure? | water vapor pressure
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| what effect does water vapor pressure have on lungers? | affect pressure of total gases & absorption in body--remember that air is humidified in nasal conchae-
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| partial pressure are affected by | 1. humidified air 2. oxygen diffusing from alveoli into blood along with carbon dioxide diffusing from pulmonary capillaries into alveoli and then - air within alveoli is only partially replaced with atmospheric air during respiration
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| Henry's law (effecting lungs) | concentration of dissolved gas = partial pressure of each gas times the solubility coefficient
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| Henry's law in liquids | gases move from areas of higher to areas of lower partial pressure
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| solubility coefficient | physical characteristic of each gas-whcih cannot be altered
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| henry's law - decompression sickness "the bends" | increased depth means increased pressure; nitrogen bubles come out of blood if pressure changes too quickly
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| hyperbaric oxygenation | increase pressure to force more oxygen into the blood
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| how is diffusion of bases, ventilatio & pulmonary blood flow affected | respiratory membrane thickness, change in surface area, or diffusion coefficient of gas
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| respiratory membran thickness | increased in diseases tuberculosis, pneumonia, advanced silicosis - also plumonary edema casuded by failure of left side of heart causes increase in thicckness of respiratory membrane
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| surface area of lungs | normally 70m2-however, emphysema (destroys alveolar walls) lung cancer or tuberculosis decrease surface area
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| diffusion coeficient of gas | "diffusion coefficient" of oxygen is rate "one" and of carbon dioxide is "20" therefore carbon dioxide diffuses through respiratory membran 20 times more readily than oxgen does
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| when respiratory membrane becomes damaged | capacity to move oxygen into blood is impaired- causes oxygen deprivation
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| relationship between ventilation & pulmonary capillary blood flow | 2 ways to disrupt-ventilation exceeds blood (in heart attack) or ventilation not great enough to oxygenat blood (asthma)
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| anatomic shunt | normal for some deoxygenated blood to mix with oxygenated blood in lungs
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| physologic shunt | blood from anatomic shunt & any blood NOT oxygenated in pulmonary capillaries (for instance if there is a blocked bronciole)
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| gravity affects regional blood flow | pressure at lung base is greater; therefore more blood flows at base
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| regional blood flow increases | with exercise - more blood at apex & greater gas exchange
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| smoking | decreases lung capacity-smokers have less gas exchange
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| carbonic anhydrase | buffering system in blood - carbon dioxide & water are changed w/enzyme into carbonic acid
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| bohr effect | as pH of blood declines, oxygen is released for use in tissues;
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| during exercise, your temperature goes up | this also decreases tendency of oxygen to bind to hemoglobin; therefore it is released where needed
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| effects of 2,3-bisphosphglercerate BPG | BPG binds to hemoglobin & increases its ability to release oxygen
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| fetal hemoglobin | fetus is able to absorb more oxygen from mother - 50% greater in fetal hemoglobin
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| double Bohr effect | in fetal hemoglobin, this means that baby gets maximum oxygen
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| medullary respiratory center | consists of dorsal respiratory group & ventral respiratory group
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| dorsal respiratory group | stimulate the inspiration
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| ventral respiratory | stimulate experiration
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| pontine (pneumotaxic) | pons is involved in switching between expiration & inspiration
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| modification of ventilation - 7 factors | 1. change in ways you breathe 2. emotions 3. chemoreceptors 4. exercise 5 pain 6. sneeze-cough reflex 7. increase in body temperature
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| herring-breuer reflex | in infants, prevents overinflation of lungs & regulates basic breathing - 2. in adults, important when tidal volume is high during exercise.
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| where does the lining of the respiratory tract change? | In oropharynx - where food also must pass--the epithelium is stratified squamous epithelium (like oral cavity)
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| what is lining of nasal cavity and superior portion of pharynx? | pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epihtelium
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| what is lining of lower respiratory system? | pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium
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| what is lining in smaller bronchioles? | cuboidal epithelium with scattered cilia
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| what is lining of alveoli? | very delicate simple squamous epithelium
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| lamina propria | underlying layer of tissue of a mucous membrane
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| hard palate is made up of what bones | maxillary and palatine bones
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| soft palate marks the end of the | nasopharynx
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| what bones form bridge of nose? | nasal bones plus extensions of the frontal (forms small attachment) and maxillary bones
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| nasal septum | the anterior is cartilage and the posterior is the vomer bone and the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone
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| external nares | external opening of the nose
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| internal nares | choanae - openings into the pharynx
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| what two special bones constitute the bony part of the nasal septum? | vomer bone and the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone
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| paranasal sinuses (4) | named for bones they are located in; frontal, maxiallary, sphenoidal & ethmoid
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| what is ethmoid sinus also called? | the ethmoid labyrinth (near eyes)
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| what supports the nsal concahe? | part of ethmoid bone
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| where is crista galli? what is on either side of crista galli? | olfactory fossa
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| what forms the floor of the olfactory fossa? | the cribiform plate of the ethmoid bone
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| conjunctivitis | inflammation of thin membrane covering eye -also called "pink eye"
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| sinusitis | inflammation of mucou membrane of any sinus, especially paranasal sinuses
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| rhinitis | inflammation of the nasal mucous membrane
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| two major bones that make up hard palate | maxillary and palatine bones
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| function of soft palate & uvula | prevents swallowed material from entering the nasal cavity & nasopharynx
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| palatine process of maxillary bone | anterior portion of hard palate
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| palatine bones | posterior portion
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| nasal conchae are connected to | ethmoid bone -
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| nasal chonchae consist of | "turbinates" and "meatus" tunnels
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| purpose of turbinates | clean air, warm air, & humidifying incoming air
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| tonsils in nasopharynx and oropharynx |
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| swallowing | opening & closing of glottis involves rotational movement of arytenoid cartilages that move vocal folds; epiglottis is bent over glottis; bolus glides over it
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| eustachian tube opening | in nasopharynx-below pharyngeal tonsil
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| cartilaginous rings -how many in trachea? what is distinctive feature? | 15-20 C-shaped rings - with cartilage onANTERIOR wall-posterior wall has NO CARTILAGE
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| what is in the space on the trachea where there is no cartilage? | trachealis muscle - causes coughing reflex?
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| what is posterior to the trachea? | the esophagus - trachea can move to allow large bolus to pass
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| tissue lining trachea | dense regular connective tissue with pseudo stratified ciliated epithelium
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| remember - what is TISSUE | dense regular connective tissue
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| Re-absorptionand filtration of proximal & distal tubule |
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