Chapter 10 definitions
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| Nervous system | Constantly receives signals, processes information, and powers our ability to learn, feel, create, and experience emotion; most complex system
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| Central nervous system | CNS;consists of the brain and spinal cord
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| Peripheral nervous system | PNS; consists of the vast network of nerves throughout the body
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| Sensory division | Afferent division of the PNS that carries signals from nerve endings to the CNS
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| Motor division | Efferent division of the PNS that transmits information from the CNS to the rest of the body
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| Somatic sensory | Part of the afferent division that carries signals from skin, bones, joints, and muscles
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| Visceral sensory | Part of the afferent division that carries signals from the viscera of the heart, lungs, stomach, and bladder
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| Somatic motor | Part of the efferent division that allows voluntary movements of skeletal muscles
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| Autonomic motor | Part of the efferent division that provides "automatic" activities such as control of blood pressure and heart rate
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| Sympathetic division | From the autonomic motor division that arouses the body for action
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| Parasympathetic division | From the autonomic division that has a calming effect
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| Neuroglia | Glial cells; supportive cells of the nervous system
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| Neurons | Excitable, impulse-conducting cells that perform the work of the nervous system; nerve cell
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| Blood-brain barrier | BBB; Exists throughout the brain and allows small molecules to diffuse across to the brain but blocks larger molecules
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| Gliomas | Highly malignant, rapid growing tumors made up of glial cells
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| Sensory neurons | Afferent neurons that detect stimuli and then transmit information about the stimuli to the CNS
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| Motor neurons | Efferent neurons that relay messages from the brain to the muscle or gland cells
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| Interneurons | Found only in the CNS;connect the incoming sensory pathways with the outgoing motor pathways; make each of us unique; 90% of the body's neurons
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| Multipolar neurons | Have 1 axon and multiple dendrites; most common neuron and includes most neurons of the brain and spinal cord
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| Bipolar neurons | Have 2 processes; an axon and a dendrite with the cell body in between the 2; found in the retina of the eye and olfactory nerve in the nose
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| Unipolar neurons | Have 1 process - an axon - that extends from the cell body before branching in a T shape; mostly reside in the sensory nerves of the PNS
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| Soma | Cell body; control center of the neuron; contains the nucleus
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| Dendrites | Look like bare tree branches; receive signals from other neurons and conduct this to the cell body
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| Axon | Carries nerve signals away from the body; longer than the dendrite and has few branches
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| Myelin sheath | Encases many (but not all) neurons; insulates the axon; formed by Schwann cells in the PNS; formed by oligodendrocytes in the CNS
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| Nodes of Ranvier | Gaps in the myelin sheath; occur at evenly spaced intervals
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| Synaptic knob | The end of each axon terminal; within it are vesicles containing a neurotransmitter
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| Neurilemma | Outer layer of the myelin sheath that contains the nucleus and most of the cytoplasm of the Schwann cell; essential for an injured nerve to regenerate
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| Membrane potential | Ions with opposite electrical charges are separated by a membrane and the potential for them to move toward one another exists
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| Polarized | A membrane that exhibits membrane potential; excess of positive ions on one side of a membrane and an excess of negative ions on the other
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| Resting potential | Inside of a cell has a negative charge and the outside has a positive charge; interior rich in K+; exterior rich in Na+; state of being inactive and polarized
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| Depolarize | Stimulus causes Na+ to enter the cell; region of the interior changes from negative to positive
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| Action potential | Channels in adjacent areas open and more Na+ enters the cell; nerve impulse continues down the length of the axon; nerve impulse
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| Repolarize | K+ flows out of the cell and the electrical balance is restored;
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| Refractory period | The membrane is polarized but the K+ and the Na+ are on the wrong sides of the membrane; sodium-potassium pump works to restore ions to their rightful sides; neuron won't respond to stimuli
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| Saltatory conduction | Signal conduction in which nerve impulses "leap" from node to node
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| Synapse | Space between the junction of 2 neurons in a neural pathway
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| Cauda equina | Bundle of nerve roots resembling a horses tail, extending from the end of the spinal cord
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| Gray matter | Nervous tissue containing mostly cell bodies of motor neurons and interneurons; appears gray because of its lack of myelin
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| White matter | Nervous tissue containing bundles of axons that carry impulses from one part of the nervous system to another; has an abundance of myelin
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| Tracts | Bundles of axons in the spinal cord that serve as routes of communication to and from the brain
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| Epidural space | Small space that lies btween the outer covering of the spinal cord and the vertebrae; it contains a cushioning layer of fat as well as blood vessels and connective tissue
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| Central canal | Carries cerebrospinal fluid through the spinal cord
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| Dorsal nerve root | Posterior nerve root that contains fibers that carry sensory information into the spinal cord; enters the dorsal horn of the spinal cord
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| Ganglion | Cell bodies of the dorsal neurons that are clustered in a knot-like structure
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| Spinal nerve | Single nerve resulting from the fusion of the dorsal and ventral nerve roots; mixed nerve
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| Mixed nerve | Nerve that contains both sensory and motor fibers
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| Ventral nerve root | Anterior nerve root that contains fibers that carry motor information out of the spinal cord; exits from the ventral horn of the spinal cord
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| Pia mater | Transparent, innermost layer of the meninges that clings to the outer surface of the brain and spinal cord
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| Arachnoid mater | Resembling a cobweb, it's the delicate layer of the meninges that lies between the pia mater and the dura mater
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| Dura mater | Tough outer layer of the meninges
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| Dorsal column | Ascending tract that relays sensations of deep pressure and vibration as well as those needed to create awareness of the body's position
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| Spinocerebellar tract | Ascending tract responsible for proprioception
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| Proprioception | Awareness of the body's position
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| Spinothalamic tract | Ascending tract that relays sensations of temperature, pressure, pain, and touch
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| Corticospinal tract | Descending tract responsible for fine movements of hands, fingers, feet, and toes on the opposite side of the body; also called pyramidal tract
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| Extrapyramidal tracts | Group of descending tracts associated with balance and muscle tone
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| Decussation | The crossing of the spinal cord tracts from one side of the body to the other in the brainstem
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| Cervical plexus | Contains nerves that supply the muscles and skin of the neck, tops of the shoulders, and part of the head; contains the phrenic nerve
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| Phrenic nerve | Nerve that stimulates the diaphragm for breathing; located in the cervical plexus
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| Brachial plexus | Innervates the lower part of the shoulder and the arm; contains the axillary nerve, radial nerve, and median nerve
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| Lumbar plexus | Supplies the leg and thigh; derived from the fibers of the first 4 lumbar vertebrae; contains the femoral nerve
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| Sacral plexus | Formed from fibers from nerves L4, L5, and S1-S4; often referred to as the lumbosacral plexus; contains the sciatic nerve
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| Dermatomes | Specific areas of the skin innervated by spinal nerves
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| Reflex arc | Neutral circuit which bypasses regions of the brain where conscious decisions are made
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| Somatic reflex | Reflex involving contraction of a skeletal muscle after being stimulated by a somatic motor neuron; often help protect the body against harm
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| Longitudinal fissure | Deep groove that separates the cerebrum into right and left hemispheres
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| Corpus callosum | Thick bundle of nerves that runs along the bottom of the longitudinal fissure
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| Gyri | Thick ridges marking the surface of the cerebrum
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| Sulci | Shallow grooves that divide the gyri
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| Fissures | Deep sulci
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| Diencephalon | Region of the brain that sits between the cerebrum and the midbrain
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| Cortex` | Gray matter that covers the cerebrum and cerebellum
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| Nuclei | Patches of gray matter throughout the white matter
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| Dural sinuses | Spaces created by separation of the dura mater that collect blood that has passed throught the brain and is on its way back to the heart
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| Subdural space | Separates the dura mater from the arachnoid mater
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| Subarachnoid space | Separates the arachnoid mater from the pia mater
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| Cerebrospinal fluid | CSF; clear, colorless fluid that fills the ventricles and central canal; bathes the outside of the brain and spinal cord
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| Midbrain | Part of the brainstem that contains tracts that relay sensory and motor impulses; contains centers for auditory and visual reflexes as well as clusters of neurons integral to muscle control
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| Pons | Part of the brainstem that contains tracts that convey signals to and from different parts of the brain; includes cranial nerves V, VI, VII, and VIII
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| Medulla oblongata | Part of the brainstem that connects the brain to the spinal cord; includes cranial nerves IX, X, XI, and XII
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| Thalamus | Shaped like 2 eggs sitting side by side; resides on top of the brainstem; involved in memory and emotion; acts as a gateway for nearly every sensory impulse; located in the diencephalon
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| Hypothalamus | Controls the ANS; contains centers responsible for thirst, hunger, and temperature regulation; controls the pituitary gland; involved in fear, anger, pleasure, and aggresion; located in the diencephalon
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| Hippocampus | Part of the limbic system charged with converting short-term memory into long-term memory; crucial for memory and learning
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| Amygdala | Part of the limbic system concerned with anger, jealousy, and fear; stores, and can recall, emotions from past events; 2 almond-shaped masses of neurons on either side of the thalamus
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| Primary motor cortex | Sends impulses to muscles necessary to pronounce words
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| Primary visual cortex | Stimulated by written words
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| Broca's area | Plans the muscle movements required of the larynx, tongue, cheeks, and lips to form words then sends the appropriate impulses back to the primary motor cortex
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| Wernicke's area | Formulates words into phrases that comply with learned grammatical rules; responsible for language comprehension
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| Angular gyrus | Translates written words into a form that can be spoken
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| Olfactory association area | Interprets the sense of smell
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| Auditory association area | Gives us the ability to recognize familiar sounds
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| Primary auditory complex | Responsible for hearing
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| Primary gustatory complex | Handles the interpretation and sensation of taste
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| Visual association area | Interprets information acquired through the primary visual cortex; allows us to recognize familiar objects
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| Primary visual cortex | Responsible for sight; governs the recognition of size, color, light, motion, and dimension
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| Cranial nerves | 12 pairs of nerves that relay messages to the rest of the body
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| Autonomic nervous system | ANS; Subdivision of the nervous system responsible for regulating the activities that maintain homeostasis; visceral motor system
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| Sympathetic division | Division of the ANS that prepares the body for physical activity; called into play during extreme stress, anger, or fear; "fight or flight" reaction; thoracolumbar division
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| Parasympathetic division | Division of the ANS that has a calming effect on body functions; craniosacral division
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| Adrenal medulla | Center of the adrenal gland that secretes a mixture of the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream when stimulated
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| Cholinergic fibers | Neurotransmitter of the ANS that secretes acetylcholine; includes the preganglionic fibers of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions as well as the postganglionic fibers of the parasympathetic division
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| Adrenergic fibers | Neurotransmitter of the ANS that secretes norepinephrine; includes most of the postganglionic fibers of the sympathetic division
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| Nicotinic receptors | Cholinergic receptors that are excited by ACh;occur within the ganglia of the ANS, in the adrenal medulla, and the neuromuscular junction
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| Muscarinic receptors | Cholinergic receptors with a vaiable response to ACh; occur on the glands, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle cells of the organs innervated by cholinergic fibers
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| Alpha-adrenergic receptors | Excited by norepinephrine
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| Beta-adrenergic receptors | Inhibited by norepinephrine
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| Dual innervation | Occurs in most organs; organs receive nerve fibers from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
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