| Question | Answer |
| Conus medullaris | terminal portion of the spinal cord |
| Stage 1 NREM description | eyes are closed and relaxation begins; the EEG shows alpha waves; one can be easily aroused |
| Cervical and lumbar enlargements | sites where nerves serving the upper and lower limbs emerge |
| paralysis is ____ | loss of motor function |
| Motor areas of the cerebral cortex control ____ | Voluntary Movement |
| The cerebral hemispheres form the _____ part of the brain and make up _____% of its mass | Superior and 83% of mass |
| Gustatory (taste) cortex | perception of taste. |
| Spinal Cord | CNS tissue is enclosed within the vertebral column from the foramen magnum to L1 Provides two-way communication to and from the brain |
| The two stages of memory are ____ memory and ____ memory | short-term long-term |
| Midbrain structures | Cerebral peduncles Cerebral aqueduct |
| 3 basic kinds of neurons. | Sensory neurons, interneurons, & motor neurons. |
| REM 4 characteristics | EEG pattern reverts through the NREM stages to the stage 1 pattern Vital signs increase Skeletal muscles (except ocular muscles) are inhibited Most dreaming takes place |
| Dura Mater | Leathery, strong meninx composed of two fibrous connective tissue layers The two layers separate in certain areas and form dural sinuses Three dural septa extend inward and limit excessive movement of the brain |
| flaccid paralysis facts | Lower motor neurons are damaged and impulses do not reach muscles There is no voluntary or involuntary control of muscles |
| __ controls unconscious control of motor activity. | cerebellum |
| Blood-Brain Barrier | Protective mechanism that helps maintain a stable environment for the brain |
| __ activity is depressed during sleep, but not __ functions. | Cortical activity - brainstem |
| Reticular Formation: Motor Function | Helps control coarse motor movements Autonomic centers regulate visceral motor functions – e.g., vasomotor, cardiac, and respiratory centers |
| Broca's area | Present in one hemisphere (usually the left) A motor speech area that directs muscles of the tongue Is active as one prepares to speak - speech preparation and production |
| Reticular Formation: RAS – reticular activating system | Sends impulses to the cerebral cortex to keep it conscious and alert Filters out repetitive and weak stimuli |
| Lateral and ventral temporal lobe | coordinate auditory and visual aspects of language |
| 3 main surface areas of the brain | Cerebral Hemispheres
Cerebellum
Brain Stem |
| All neurons whose cell bodies are in the spinal cord gray matter are __. | Multipolar |
| Pineal gland | secretes melatonin Melatonin – a hormone involved with sleep regulation, sleep-wake cycles, and mood |
| Poliomyelitis facts | Destruction of the anterior horn motor neurons by the poliovirus Early symptoms – fever, headache, muscle pain and weakness, and loss of somatic reflexes Vaccines are available and can prevent infection |
| Primary visual (striate) cortex | Receives visual information from the retinas |
| Basal Nuclei | Regulate attention & cognition - Caudate nucleus, putamon, & globus pallidus - collection of nerve bodies in CNS |
| fibers of the pons do two things _______ and ______ | Connect higher brain centers and the spinal cord Relay impulses between the motor cortex and the cerebellum |
| Arachnoid Mater | The middle meninx, forms a loose brain covering separated from the dura mater by subdural space Beneath the arachnoid is a wide subarachnoid space filled with CSF and lg bld vess. Arachnoid villi protrude superiorly and permitCSFto absb to venous blood |
| Endocrine Functions of the Hypothalamus | Releasing hormones control secretion of hormones by the anterior pituitary Produce ADH and oxytocin |
| Choroid plexus | a structure that secretes cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) |
| Infundibulum | stalk of the hypothalamus; connects to the pituitary gland Main visceral control center of the body |
| Short term memory | – a fleeting memory of the events that continually happen lasts seconds to hours and usually limited to 7-8 pieces of info |
| Narcolepsy | – lapsing abruptly into sleep from the awake state |
| Memory is ____ and ____ of information | storage and retrieval |
| Pons description | Bulging brainstem region between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata |
| List the language areas 4 | Wernicke's area Broca's area Lateral prefrontal cortex Lateral and ventral temporal lobe |
| Delta Waves | high-amplitude waves seen in deep sleep and when reticular activating system is damped |
| Control of Epilepsy | Epilepsy can usually be controlled with anticonvulsive drugs Vagus nerve stimulators can be implanted under the skin of the chest and can keep electrical activity of the brain from becoming chaotic |
| Absence Seizure or petit mal seizure description | mild seizures seen in young children where the expression goes blank |
| The three principles of memory are: | Storage – occurs in stages and is continually changing Processing – accomplished by the hippocampus and surrounding structures Memory traces – chemical or structural changes that encode memory |
| Grand mal seizures | victim loses consciousness, bones are often broken due to intense convulsions, loss of bowel and bladder control, and severe biting of the tongue |
| Harmful substances are shielded from the brain by the __________ | blood brain barrier |
| General (Common) Interpretation Area Facts | Ill-defined region including parts of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes Found in one hemisphere, usually the left Integrates incoming signals into a single thought Involved in processing spatial relationships |
| Alzheimer’s disease | a progressive degenerative disease of the brain that results in dementia |
| Stage 3 NREM description | sleep deepens; theta and delta waves appear; vital signs decline; dreaming is common |
| Sleep pattern Descriptions | alternating cycles of sleep and wakefulness reflect a natural cicadian rhythm RAS activity declines typical pattern alternates between REM and NREM |
| List 5 functional areas of the anterior cerebral cortex | Primary motor area, premotor cortex, frontal eye field, brocca's area, prefrontal cortex, |
| Cerebellar Processing | receives impulses of the intent to initiate voluntary muscle contraction Proprioceptors and visual signals “inform” the cerebellum of the body’s condition calculates the best way to perform a movement "blueprint" is sent to cerebral motor cortex |
| Primary somatosensory cortex | Upside down and back wards input from various body regions |
| Cephalization | Elaboration of the anterior portion of the CNS, increase in number of neurons, highest level in human brain |
| Parkinson’s disease | degeneration of the dopamine-releasing neurons |
| Sensory neurons | Collect & relay info about stimuli to spinal cord & brain. |
| Cerebellum facts | Makes up 11% of the brain’s mass Provides precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction Cerebellar activity occurs subconsciously |
| Cerebral Hemisphere contains ridges called ___ and grooves called ___ and deep grooves called ___ | Ridges - Gyri and Grooves - Sulci Deep Grooves - Fissures |
| Medulla Oblongata facts | Most inferior part of the brain stem Decussation of the pyramids – crossover points of the corticospinal tracts Cardiovascular center Respiratory center Vomiting, hiccupping, swallowing, coughing, and sneezing |
| The diencephalon encloses the ____ ventricle | 3rd |
| Theta Waves | more irregular than alpha waves; common in children but abnormal in adults |
| Three basic regions of the cerebral hemispheres | cortex, white matter, and basal nuclei |
| Fact (declarative) memory: | Entails learning explicit information Is related to our conscious thoughts and our language ability Is stored with the context in which it was learned |
| Bloodborne substances are separated from neurons by: | Continuous endothelium of capillary walls Relatively thick basal lamina Bulbous feet of astrocytes |
| The cerebral cortex enables ______, ______, _____, ______ and _____movements. | It enables sensation, communication, memory, understanding, and voluntary movements |
| Quadriplegia | – transection in the cervical region |
| CNS is composed of the _____ and ______ | Brain and Spinal Cord |
| One passes through four stages of NREM during the first _______ of sleep | 30-45 minutes |
| Interneurons | In the spinal cord & brain - receive & process sensory input & send signals to other neurons. |
| Three connective tissue membranes lie external to the CNS: | dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater |
| spinal cord is protected by _______ | Protected by bone, meninges, and CSF |
| Visual association area | Uses past visual experience to interpret visual stimuli (color form and movement) |
| Cerebral dominance | designates the hemisphere dominant for language |
| Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) | temporary episodes of reversible cerebral ischemia |
| __ nerve carries signals to the heart. | vagus |
| Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) facts | Lou Gehrig’s disease – neuromuscular condition involving destruction of anterior horn motor neurons and fibers of the pyramidal tract Symptoms – loss of the ability to speak, swallow, and breathe Death occurs within five years |
| The dorsal horns of spinal cord are __. | Interneurons |
| Prefrontal Cortex | Involved with intellect, cognition, recall, and personality Necessary for judgment, reasoning, persistence, and conscience Closely linked to the limbic system (emotional part of the brain) |
| Association Fibers | Connect different parts of same hemisphere. |
| Insomnia | chronic inability to obtain the amount or quality of sleep needed |
| Cingulate gyrus | plays a role in expressing emotions via gestures, and resolves mental conflict |
| Tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) | is the only approved treatment for stroke |
| Epilepsy facts | A victim of epilepsy may lose consciousness, fall stiffly, and have uncontrollable jerking, characteristic of epileptic seizure Epilepsy is not associated with, nor does it cause, intellectual impairments Epilepsy occurs in 1% of the population |
| Projection Fibers | Tie cortex to rest of nervous system - run vertically. |
| Lateralization | each hemisphere has abilities not shared with its partner |
| Skill Memory: | less conscious than fact memory and involves motor activity acquired through practice do not retain the context in which they were learned |
| Three paired structures of the diencephalon | Thalamus Hypothalamus epithalamus |
| thalamic function | Afferent impulses from all senses converge Impulses are sorted out, edited, and relayed as a group All inputs pass through the thalamus Plays a key role in mediating sensation, motor activities, cortical arousal, learning, and memory |
| Sensory areas of the cerebral cortex control ______ | Conscious awareness of sensation |
| Hemiplegia | Paralyzed on one side of body. |
| Right hemisphere controls | controls visual-spatial skills, emotion, and artistic skills |
| Motor neurons | Relay signals from interneurons to effectors - muscles & glands - that carry out responses. |
| Hypothalamic Function | regulates blood pressure, breathing, visceral activities, body temp, feelings of hunger and involved with perception of fear pleasure, and rage |
| midbrain funtions | Visual reflex centers and auditory relay |
| List the two functional brain systems | Limbic system Reticular formation |
| Spinal Cord Features | Central cavity surrounded by gray matter core around which is white matter composed of myelinated fiber tracts |
| strokes are commonly caused by ___ and ____ | Most commonly caused by blockage of a cerebral artery Other causes include compression of the brain by hemorrhage or edema, and atherosclerosis |
| Left hemisphere controls | controls language, math, and logic |
| Mammillary bodies | Relay station for olfactory pathways |
| Cerebral white matter consists of _____ and is responsible for communication between _____ | deep myelinated fibers and their tracts The cerebral cortex and lower CNS center, and areas of the cerebrum |
| Each nerve exits from column via the __. | Intervertebral formina |
| Factors that effect transfer of memory from STM to LTM include: | Emotional state –alert, motivated, and aroused Rehearsal – repeating or rehearsing material enhances memory Association – associating new information with old memories in LTM enhances memory Automatic memory – subconscious information stored in LTM |
| brain stem facts | Similar to spinal cord but contains embedded nuclei Controls automatic behaviors necessary for survival Provides the pathway for tracts between higher and lower brain centers Associated with 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves |
| Clinical consciousness | is defined on a continuum that grades levels of behavior – alertness, drowsiness, stupor, coma |
| Beta waves | rhythmic, more irregular waves occurring during the awake and mentally alert state |
| Lateral prefrontal cortex | language comprehension and word analysis |
| Spinal nerves have ___ pairs attach to the cord by ______ | 31 paired roots |
| Three regions of brain stem | midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata |
| Hippocampal structures | convert new information into long-term memories |
| Corpus Callosum | Deep w/in longitudinal fissure - largest commissure - connects both hemispheres so they can coordinate. |
| Ventricles | "paired C shaped lateral ventricles" Prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain), & rhombencephalon (hindbrain) |
| Amygdala | deals with anger, danger, and fear responses |
| Transection paralysis | Cross sectioning of the spinal cord at any level results in total motor and sensory loss in regions inferior to the cut |
| retircular formation | Balance, posture, & muscle tone - Low-level motor pathway - major network of interneurons. |
| Somatosensory association cortex | Temp, pressure, etc |
| The brain is protected by ____, ____ and _____ | bone, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid |
| REM sleep occurs after the ______ NREM stage has been achieved | fourth |
| The spinal cord typically ends between __. | L1 & L2 |
| Commissures | Composed of commissural fibers (horizontal) - connect gray areas of both hemispheres - largest is corpus callosum. |
| Wernicke’s area | involved in sounding out unfamiliar words, maybe |
| Dura Mater | "Tough Mother" - strongest meninx - surrounds brain. |
| Auditory association area | "perceives" sound stimulus using sound memories. |
| Frontal Eye Field | Controls voluntary eye movement |
| Association areas of the cerebral cortex control _______ | Integration of diverse information |
| Oxygen use by brain during REM sleep is __ than awake state. | Greater |
| Flaccid paralysis | severe damage to the ventral root or anterior horn cells |
| Epithalamus areas | Most dorsal portion of the diencephalon pineal gland and choroid plexus |
| Cerebrospinal fluid reduces brain weight by __. | 97% - by floating it. |
| Consciousness facts | Higher mental processes perception of sensation voluntary initiation and control of movement holistic and interconnected |
| Spastic paralysis | – only upper motor neurons of the primary motor cortex are damaged |
| Functions of the meninges | Cover and protect the CNS Protect blood vessels and enclose venous sinuses Contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Form partitions within the skull |
| ischemia | Deprivation of blood supply to a tissue. |
| Brain Waves facts | Continous electrical activity EEG records activity Unique Peaks and troughs expressed in Hertz(Hz) |
| Cauda equina | – collection of nerve roots at the inferior end of the vertebral canal |
| meninges layers | Skin of scalp Periosteum Bone of skull dura matter arachnoid mater pia mater |
| Three functional areas of the cerebral cortex | Motor, sensory, association |
| The cerebral cortex is made up of superficial ____ matter and accounts for ___% of brain mass | Gray Matter and 40% of brain mass |
| Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) | watery solution similar to blood plasma liquid cushion prevent brain from crushing under its wieght protects from trauma nourishes and carries chem signals |
| Hypothalamus areas | Located below the thalamus Mammillary bodies Relay station for olfactory pathways Infundibulum – stalk of the hypothalamus; connects to the pituitary gland Main visceral control center of the body |
| Conscious behavior involves the ______ cortex. | ENTIRE |
| Sleep apnea | temporary cessation of breathing during sleep |
| Ventral horns of spinal cord are mostly __. | Somatic motor neurons. |
| Two areas of limbic system | amygdala and cingulate gyrus |
| Cerebellar Cognitive Function | Plays a role in language and problem solving Recognizes and predicts sequences of events |
| Pia Mater | Deep meninx composed of delicate connective tissue that clings tightly to the brain |
| From external to internal, the meninges are: | Dura mater, arachnoid mater, & pia mater. |
| Cerebral peduncles | Verticle pillars holding up cerebrum. |
| Epidural space | space between the vertebrae and the dural sheath (dura mater) filled with fat and a network of veins |
| Denticulate ligaments | – delicate shelves of pia mater; attach the spinal cord to the vertebrae |
| Premotor cortex | Controls learned, repetitious, or patterned motor skills Coordinates simultaneous or sequential actions Involved in the planning of movements |
| Stage 2 NREM description | EEG pattern is irregular with sleep spindles (high-voltage wave bursts); arousal is more difficult |
| What is known as the "gateway to the cerebral cortex?" | the thalamus |
| The limbic system interacts with the prefrontal lobes, therefore: | One can react emotionally to conscious understandings One is consciously aware of emotion in one’s life |
| 2 types of sleep | REM and Non REM |
| Filum terminale | Anchors spinal cord to coccyx. |
| Primary motor cortex | Allows conscious control of precise, skilled, voluntary movements |
| Stage 4 NREM description | EEG pattern is dominated by delta waves; skeletal muscles are relaxed; arousal is difficult |
| spastic paralysis facts | Spinal neurons remain intact and muscles are stimulated irregularly There is no voluntary control of muscles |
| Two categories of memory | Fact memory and skill memory |
| Blood-Brain Barrier: Functions | allows nutrients to pass absent in some areas allowing these areas to monitor chem composition of blood stress increases the ability of chems to pass through |
| The cerebral hemispheres are seperated by _______ | Longitudinal Fissure |
| Diencephalon | Central core of the forebrain |
| Huntington’s disease | a fatal hereditary disorder |
| List 8 functional areas of the posterior cerebral cortex | prim. somatosensory cortex, somatosensory assoc. cortex, gustatory cortex, Wernicke's area, prim. visual cortex, visual assoc. area, auditory assoc. area, prim. auditory area, visceral sensory area |
| Visceral sensory area | conscious perception of visceral senses |
| Cerebrovascular Accidents (Strokes) | caused when blood circulation to brain is blocked and brain tissue dies |
| Paraplegia | – transection between T1 and L1 |
| Hemispheres of the brain control ______ sides of the body and are equal/unequal in function | Opposite sides of the body and are not equal in function. |
| Fibers & tracts have 3 classification directions. | Commissural (horizontal), association (verticle), or projection (verticle). |
| Parkinson's disease is a degeneration of _____ releasing neurons | Dopamine |
| Alpha waves | regular and rhythmic, low-amplitude, slow, synchronous waves indicating an “idling” brain |
| Primary auditory cortex | Receives information related to pitch, rhythm, and loudness |
