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Comparative Politics
GOV20 Final Exam
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Structuralism | Lipset, Huntington, Marx; social, economic, and cultural preconditions causal to development, democratization, revolution, and ethnic conflict. Regardless of individual agents, outcomes are determined by similar conditions. |
| Modernisation Theory | Rostow, Lipset, Lerner; structural theory that economic forces drive development and democratisation; Euro-centric "single path" to modernisation (urbanisation, industrialisation, education, secularisation etc.) |
| Unequal Exchange/Declining Terms of Trade | Gunder Frank; comparative advantage of periphery in raw materials perpetuates exploitive and inferior trade relationship with core; periphery states should “go it alone”, break from international capitalist system. |
| Relative Backwardness | Gerschenkron; how backward a nation is compared to its neighbors; for countries like Britain, relative backwardness was very low, making it easy to develop. In others, like in sub-Saharan Africa, it is harder to develop because backwardness is very high. |
| International Demonstration Effect | Di Palma, Huntington; the effects or outcomes in one state can affect government policies and expectations in neighboring states. For example, the democratic success of Latvia, Estonia; or, Spain and Portugal through the EU. |
| Liberalism | Weber; foundation of democracy; champions individual rights over society, religious authorities, state; non-hierarchical; inalienable rights and inherent equality of all citizens; encourages competition; citizens free to choose how to run governments. |
| Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs) | Wade; countries that switched from agriculture to industry, not at the level of the most developed countries; export promotion and domestic industry brought development, challenged dependency theory. |
| Core vs. Periphery | The development of the Core and underdevelopment of Periphery are two sides of the same coin; international economy is zero-sum game; slavery and poor trade policy exploited the periphery to the Core's benefit. |
| The Kuomingtang (KMT) | Taiwan; led by Chiang Kai-Shek; nationalist party and dictatorship with the help of U.S. foreign investment; destroyed land-owning class; land reform; focus on exports, many banks etc. out of state hands; moved in 1900s; few ties to Taiwanese society. |
| Park Chung Hee | President of South Korea (1961-1979); authoritarian; modernization by export led growth; criticized for human rights; developmentalist; lowered trade barriers, used loans and subsidies to steer heavy industry; created major automobile sector; hike in GDP. |
| Developmental State | Wade; a state that can lead development; autonomous, highly bureaucratic, interventionist (tariffs, subsidies, etc.), business-friendly; allows for cohesive, long-term strategy, quicker than democratic states; East Asian NICs |
| State Autonomy | Wade; precondition for the developmental state; the state bureaucracy must be insulated from interest groups so that it can make the best decisions for the economy. |
| Import-Substituting Industrialization (ISI) | Substitute imports, finished goods, with local substitutes; policy to subsidize, orchestrate production of substitutes, protect barriers to trade (tariffs), keep domestic currency overvalued; state-led industrialization; protectionism; Ex. Latin America. |
| Neoclassical Development Theory | Adam Smith; David Ricardo; stressed free trade, privatisation, and producing goods with the lowest opportunity cost as means to development; the current basis for IMF policies, and the IMF conditions loans on trade liberalization, privatization, etc... |
| Augusto Pinochet & the Chicago Boys | Chilean dictator, UChicago economists; opened free-market capitalist economy, reduced tariff barriers; foreign competition shrunk industry, agriculture exports boomed; economy grew after 1983; 6% growth/year from 1990, largest, wealthiest in Latin America |
| Labor Repressive Agriculture | Skocpol, Moore; a system employed by landed aristocracy where peasants are tied to the land and forced to work; impediment to democratization because it deprives peasants of rights and leads to repressive state apparatuses; weakens state |
| The Third Wave | Huntington; the period since 1975 which has yielded 30 new democracies, doubling the total number; took place largely in Latin America and Eastern Europe; Vatican opposed authoritarianism; rapid growth, economic development; declining legitimacy. |
| Cross-cutting Cleavages | Lipset; citizens share many different types of identity (social, political, economic, religious, ethnic etc.); more conducive to stable democratisation due to less division and violence; structuralist precondition of Modernisation Theory. |
| Capital Mobility | The ability for the citizens of a country to move their assets (stocks & bonds vs. land) abroad; where this is high, the rich are more likely to tolerate democracy; stabilises democracy |
| Political Pact | An agreement between political rivals to share power in order to stabilise democracy; each party makes various concessions to come to compromise; South Africa. |
| Jawaharlal Nehru | Indian Prime Minister for first 12 years; leadership demonstrated democratic values; systematically under-utilised power, encouraging the independence of institutions such as the judiciary and governing the country through negotiation and compromise. |
| Indira Gandhi | Nehru's daughter; Indian PM 1966-77, 80-84; sought secular state; declared state of emergency in 75; ruled by decree (martial law) for 2 years; electoral loss to Janata Party was Congress Party's first major defeat; arrested by Janata PM; re-elected in 80 |
| Nelson Mandela | Leader of African National Congress; sentenced to life in prison after protests of Sharpesville Massacre; released by F.W. de Klerk after 30 years; became South African President; under-utilised power, respected court decisions, stepped down after 1 term |
| Competitive Authoritarianism | Levitsky; regime that looks like democracy but tilts the playing field in incumbents' favour; private media is not banned, but bought off by the government; informal gangs, not army, repress protestors; rigs, but does not cancel, elections. |
| Shari'a | Bellin; Islamic law from the Koran; concerns everyday life (practices of worship, social practices like marriage, food, judicial proceedings, penal codes); basis for theocratic government of Iran, other muslim countries; "opposed to democratisation" |
| Social Revolution | Skocpol; rapid, fundamental transformation of political and class structure; excludes intra-state regime changes, changes to the state system without social change (political revolutions), class transformations without political change. |
| The J-Curve | Davies; relative depravation; revolutions are not only in poor countries; the expansion of the gap between what people aspire to and what they have leads to rebellion; expectations for progress will rise until the state’s performance no longer meets them. |
| Foco Strategy | Bases success of communist revolutions on Cuban model of small guerilla force in the mountains which gains support from peasants; much of American anti-communism policy in Latin America unsuccessful after Cuba, particularly in Bolivia. |
| Mir | Agrarian communes given to newly freed serfs as part of a modernising program in 1861; land owned by a community, distributed to individuals; meant to enhance solidarity, autonomy. |
| Bolsheviks | A faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party; led by Lenin, Trotsky; sought skip from capitalism to communism; organised, no tie to provisional government; put working class in the administration; armed the Red Army of Communist Party |
| Vladimir Lenin | Charismatic leader of the Bolshevik party; brought down the provisional government; established communism in Russia; led Soviet Union from 1917-1924 |
| Soviets | The workers’ councils that appeared after the 1905 uprisings; in Petrograd, asserted right to govern concomitantly with the republican government in Moscow. |
| Sultanistic Regime | Regime fused to weak, limited state; difficult to split leader from state authority; the state (and its institutions) is a personal instrument of the sultan; personal ties define career mobility; susceptible to revolutions and state collapse |
| Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini | Halliday; clerical leader who led religious opposition to the Shah during the 1960s; arrested, exiled; created Islamic ideology that caused 1979 Revolution; ensured the emergence of an Islamic dictatorship by consolidating power after the revolution |
| The Collective Action/Free Rider Problem | Davies; cost of participation is high (time, money, life); benefit of involvement is low (minor impact); no loss to the rebellion if non-participatory; problem arises when all of the peasantry come to this same conclusion; collective action is impossible. |
| Primordialism | Geertz; structuralist theory that ethnicity is invariable, defined by primordial attachments; ethnic conflict is deeply rooted and triggered by ancient hatreds; pessimistic about the prospect of ethnic peace in pluralistic states |
| Ethnic Group | A group that is tied together by a certain race, religion, language, or other objective difference; the difference must be salient—cannot be based around eye color alone, for example. |
| Ethnic Entrepeneur | Bates; part of the instrumentalist “top down” approach during times of violent ethnic conflict; create or capitalize on ethnic problems under the surface to gain political support (Hitler, Milosevic); tend to be either marginal leaders or weak insiders. |
| Nationalism | The force that ties a nation to a state; a nation is a group identity that commands one’s ultimate loyalty in conflict; nations are generally tied to one state; some states have more than one (Yugoslavia); some nations do not have a state (Palestine). |
| Hutu vs. Tutsi | Mamdani, Strauss; two ethnic groups of Rwanda; Hutu (85%), Tutsi (10-15%); shared political power before Belgian colonisation; Belgian preference (first Tutsi, then Hutu) led to Tutsi genocide; horrible ethnic violence ignored by the rest of the world. |
| The Ustashi Revolutionary Movement | Crnobrnja; Croat separatist group; unsatisfied with Serb monarchy in Yugoslavia in first half of 20th century; took power when Axis powers occupied the Balkan region in WWII; racist toward Jews, Serbs; killed over 30,000 Serbs. |
| Josip Tito | Crnobrnja; led Partisons, anti-Nazi group for government tolerant of all ethnic groups; sought protection of ethnic minorities, redistribution (wealthier provinces subsidize poorer); raised economy, living standard; forged collective Yugoslavian identity. |
| Slobodan Milosevic | Crnobrnja; mid-level politician sent to calm ethnic/economic conflict between Serbs and Albanian Muslims (1987); national Serbian hero for defending Serbs in Kosovo; sparked ethnic conflict by giving credence to constructivist notions of ethnicity. |
| Franjo Tudjman | Crnobrnja; led Croatian nationalist movement for 1000 years of statehood; became president, honoured old fascist leaders of Croatia, purified language of foreign influence; fear of genocide mobilised Serb majority in Kryna to battle for independence |
| Kosovo | Crnobrnja; region of Serbia with Albanian Muslim majority, Serb minority; former sought independence; Dayton Accords kept Serbs in power, giving KLA support; launched guerilla war in 1998; 2,000 killed, 250,000 displaced; ended by 78-day NATO bombing |
| Civil Society | Organised citizen activity that lies outside the state (churches, charitable organizations, etc.); societal organisational muscle that helps keep governments in check; if strong, then conducive to stable democratisation. |
| Civil Community | Putnam; a society in which people trust each other and treat each other with respect—they participate in public life, and have a sense of the public good. |
| Social Capital | Putnam; the collective value of a social network; connections among individuals, and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. |
| Pluralism | Societies which advocate the acceptance of other cultural values; more likely to establish civil society; more compatible with liberalism as it champions individual rights over the state. |
| Institutional Strength | Levitsky, Huntington; the extent to which the political rules written down on paper are enforced in practice, endure changes in government; institutionalisation; rules valued for their own sake, widely known and accepted within society |
| Informal Institution | Informal rules of the political game, not officially codified, enforced by public authorities; everyone knows, respects them; violating them means there’s some punishment; "dedazo" in Mexico, two-term rule before amendment |
| Semi-Presidentialism | Democratic institution with both a President and PM; directly elected President, PM by parliament; France, Portugal, Poland; President must not be able to fire PM (Russia), both autonomous. |
| Cohabitation | Semi-presidentialist rule by two parties, and two leaders. PM deals with day-to-day, economy; President deals with matters of state, foreign affairs; |
| Vote of No Confidence | Parliamentary institution that can remove a Prime Minister by a vote of the Parliament; shows the majority does not support the policy/leadership of a leader; limits terms; |
| Plurality Representation | Systems where the legislative or executive seat is determined by the candidate who receives the most votes; compatible with presidential regimes; often promote the establishment of a two-party system |
| District Magnitude | The number of representatives elected to each district; critical factor driving the aggregate effects of electoral systems on party systems; smaller translates to less direct representation, weakening the effects of PR; higher increases those effects. |
| Institutionalized Party Systems | Systems where citizens have strong party identities, passed down from generation to generation; stable electoral bases; generally regular electoral results. Some examples include Germany, the United States, and Chile. |
| Duverger's Law | Single-member district plurality elections encourage a two-party system. |
| Multiparty Presidentialism | Presidential system; more than two major parties; difficult for one party to obtain majority; presidents select cabinet, have more authority over policy, so underrepresented parties must wait out the term to change; low approval by majority of population |
| Concurrent Elections | Presidential races are held at the same time as congressional races; the presidential race greatly impacts the congressional race, encouraging party line voting; smaller parties have a more difficult time competing; often found in plurality systems. |
| Consocationalism | Lijphart; set of institutions where ethnic groups share power and resources; five key characteristics: parliamentary systems with proportional representation, grand coalitions, quota systems, mutual veto, segmental autonomy; not fully democratic |
| Collapsed State | When the institutions of the state collapse because of weakness and an inability to carry about the basic functions of the state. |
| Joseph Mobutu | President of Zaire for 32 years; his disastrous mismanagement of the economy coupled with enriching himself off its financial and natural resources makes his name synonymous with kleptocracy in Africa. |
| Charles Taylor | President of Liberia from 1997-2003; Africa's most prominent warlord; launched an armed uprising in 1989 from Cote d'Ivoire into Liberia to overthrow its government. |
| Sunni Muslims in Iraq | 15% of Iraqi population; favoured by British under colonial rule; Baathist regime consolidated ethnic power; much to lose, little to gain from consocationalism; boycotted 05 election, constitution; 100 attacks on Shia government/day by late 05. |
| De-Baathification | Policy endorsed by Bush government; Hussein took over the Baath party in the 1980s, heavily militarised, centralised it. After the war, Coalition Provisional Government removed Baathists from government to start anew, removing many skilled officials. |
| Universalistic Social Policies | Social policy based on the provision of social welfare for all through public or private institutions rather than partial and individuals subsidies; middle-class develop stake in welfare state, support it politically |
| Veto players | Individuals or collective actors who have to agree for the legislative status quo to change; can block, dilute policy initiatives; |
| State | Set of permanent, administrative, legal and coercive systems with monopoly over the legitimate use of force; rule of law and bodies that enforce it—Post Office, Army, IRS, etc.; can put you in prison, send you to war, etc; the most slow-moving, permanent. |
| Government | The people who occupy the position of power at any given time—changes the most fluidly and rapidly compared to the others. The President/PM is the head of government. Elections in the US are changes in government. |
| Regime | Rules by which political rules are allocated: Democracy, Monarchy, Totalitarianism, Dictatorship, etc.; change more frequently than states, less than government. Military coup in Honduras is a regime change; U.S. elections are not. |
| Voluntarism | Di Palma; individual agents (political leaders) can overcome poor structural factors; Nelson Mandela (South Africa), Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru (India); avoids structuralism's determinism; hard to flesh out theoretically. |
| Means-tested Social Policies | Policies that target only the poor, undermining cross-class solidarity; middle class has no stake in welfare state, less likely to support it politically; policies often associated with the poor, racial minorities |
| Shia Muslims in Iraq | 60% of population; systematically oppressed by Hussein; 300,000 killed; most to gain from consocationalism; organised, funded by Iran; attacked by Sunni insurgents, suicide bombers (2003-04); BADR, SCIRI militias took over state, killed hundreds of Sunni. |
| Inchoate Party Systems | Systems where parties lack roots in society; parties are personalistic, created for particular candidates, not viewed as relative fixtures in society; high level of electoral volatility; increases likelihood of governmental crises. For example, Peru. |
| Proportional Representation | Lijphart; an electoral voting system where seats are divided according to the percentage of votes each party receives; commonly associated with parliamentary systems; give rise to multiparty systems due to lower barriers to enter the political arena. |
| Corporatism | Universalist societies that are intolerant of having multiple cultures exist within their state; civil society is less likely to be established; state sponsored groups may be established, but bottom-up organizations are less likely to be found. |
| Amoral Familism | Putnam; Banfield’s term for what was found in Italy’s south—everyone looks out for themselves; where worry for self and family trump that for community. |
| Constructivism | Nagel; theory that ethnicity is socially constructed; ethnic groups are formed to some degree from family and kinship ties; political arrangements that spotlight diversity institutionalize ethnic differences, increasing ethnic mobilization and conflict. |
| Mensheviks | A faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party; led by Alexander Kerensky; supported a gradual approach to communism; maintained that Russia had to have a bourgeois revolution beforehand. |
| Export-Oriented Industrialization (EOI) | Exporting goods with comparative advantage to speed-up industrialization; open domestic markets to foreign competition for market access in other countries; reduce tariffs; devalue national currency (floating exchange rate); support exporting sectors. |
| State Capacity | Wade; Includes the function of variables such as the state’s fiscal resources, political autonomy, legitimacy, internal coherence and responsiveness that allows them to act; the ability to govern and rule. |
| Indian Congress Party | Led by Gandhi and Nehru; primarily a political body, transformed into vehicle for social reform; helped instill values and democratic use of law throughout India; dynasty during mid 1900s, where the Nehru family continued to lead as Prime Minister |
| Josef Stalin | Premier of Soviet Union 41-53; uninspiring, effective bureaucratic, ruthless; sought end of the New Economic Policy; wanted "Socialism in One Country" not revolutions around the world; nationalised agriculture under Collectivisation |
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