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Reading 9.6
Challenges of the 21st Century
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Election of 2000 | Presidential election that ended in controversy over ballots in Florida, with the conservative leaning Supreme Court siding with Republican candidate George W. Bush. |
| Al Gore | Vice president to President Clinton and Democratic candidate in the presidential election of 2000 who lost to George W. Bush after the Supreme Court controversially stopped a recount in Florida. |
| George W. Bush | Governor of Texas who became the 43rd President of the United States after the controversial decision in Bush v. Gore and oversaw the start of the war on terrorism. |
| Bush v. Gore | Landmark SCOTUS case that controversially stopped a recount in Florida, which resulted in Republican George W. Bush winning the presidency over Democrat Al Gore. |
| War on Terrorism | International military counterterrorism campaign launched by the United States after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. |
| Dick Cheney | Vice president to President W. Bush who greatly influenced foreign policy through his experience as Secretary of Defense under President H. W. Bush. |
| Colin Powell | General who became Secretary of State for President W. Bush and greatly influenced the War on Terrorism. |
| Al-Qaeda | Multinational militant Islamic extremist network that preached jihad and organized multiple terrorist attacks around the world, including the 9/11 terrorist attacks. |
| “Asymmetric” Warfare | Type of war between belligerents whose military power and strategy differ significantly, such as small bands of militants inflicting great damage on a more powerful country. |
| Osama bin Laden | Al-Qaeda leader who was responsible for multiple terrorist attacks, including the 9/11 terrorist attacks and fled to Afghanistan and allied himself with the Taliban. |
| Afghanistan | Landlocked country at the crossroads of Central and South Asia where Osama bin Laden fled and allied himself with the Taliban. |
| Taliban | Islamic fundamentalists who controlled Afghanistan and were driven from power by the U.S military, but returned to power after the removal of U.S. troops under President Biden. |
| USS Cole | U.S. warship docked in the Middle Eastern country of Yemen that was sunk in 2000 by two suicide bombers as part of a terrorist attack. |
| World Trade Center | Complex of buildings in NYC that included the Twin Towers, which were destroyed by the 9/11 terrorist attacks. |
| September 11, 2001 | Date of terrorist attacks that involved Islamic extremists capturing four planes and flying them into the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, which led to the War on Terrorism. |
| War in Afghanistan | U.S. invasion of Afghanistan after the 9/11 terrorist attacks to capture Al-Qaeda leaders and end Taliban support for Islamic terrorists. |
| USA PATRIOT Act (2001) | Congressional law passed after the 9/11 terrorist attacks that gave the national government unparalleled powers to obtain information and to expand surveillance and arrest powers. |
| Department of Homeland Security | New executive department created under President W. Bush after the 9/11 terrorist attacks to streamline the organization of federal agencies responsible for public security. |
| Director of National Intelligence | New executive branch position created under President W. Bush after the 9/11 terrorist attacks to coordinate the intelligence of all federal agencies. |
| Iraq War | U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 in response to allegations of Saddam Hussein being involved with the 9/11 terrorist attacks and possessing weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). |
| Axis of Evil | Name President W. Bush used to describe Iraq, North Korea and Iran as the biggest threats to world peace. |
| Saddam Hussein | Dictator of Iraq that was forcibly removed by the U.S. military after allegations of him being involved with the 9/11 terrorist attacks and possessing weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). |
| Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs) | Nuclear, radiological, chemical, biological, or other device that is intended to harm a large number of people. |
| Operation Iraqi Freedom | U.S. invasion of Iraq 2003 in response to allegations of Saddam Hussein being involved with the 9/11 terrorist attacks and possessing weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). |
| “War of Choice” | Criticism launched at the Bush Administration that the invasion of Iraq was unnecessary for the defense of the United States. |
| Regime Change | Replacement of a government administration by another, such as the U.S. military removing Saddam Hussein as dictator of Iraq. |
| Abu Ghraib | Prison in Iraq where U.S. forces committed barbaric atrocities against prisoners, which was publicly exposed through photographs and diminished America’s reputation around the world. |
| Elections of 2004 | Election cycle where President W. Bush won a close reelection campaign against John Kerry, Republicans expanded their majorities in Congress and Republicans made gains at the state level. |
| John Kerry | Democratic candidate for president in the election of 2004 that lost a close campaign to incumbent President W. Bush. |
| “Surge” | Influx of additional U.S troops into Iraq in 2007 to address escalating violence, which led to reduced militia violence and decreased American deaths by late 2008. |
| Kyoto Accord | International climate agreement covering most of the members of the United Nations that the United States refused to join under President W. Bush. |
| Unilateralist Approach | International relations in which a nation acts without regard to the interests of other countries, which was a common critique of the Bush Administration. |
| Bush Doctrine | Foreign policy under President W. Bush that abandoned containment and deterrence in a world of stateless terrorism and favored preemptive attacks to stop terrorists from acquiring WMDs. |
| Election of 2008 | Presidential election in which Barack Obama beat Hillary Clinton for the Democratic nomination and went on to defeat John McCain and Democrats built on their majorities in Congress. |
| Hillary Clinton | Former first lady and senator from New York who lost a close primary to Barack Obama in 2008, became his Secretary of State and later lost to Donald Trump in the election of 2016. |
| Barack Obama | 44th President of the United States who campaigned on a message of change in the face of the Great Recession and was the first African American president. |
| John McCain | Senator from Arizona, Vietnam War hero and political maverick who lost the election of 2008 to Barack Obama. |
| Drones | Unmanned combat aerial vehicles that became commonly used by the U.S. military under President Obama, but remain controversial for potential civilian damage and casualties. |
| SEAL Team 6 | Special forces unit that worked with the CIA on a clandestine operation that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden in 2011. |
| Arab Spring | Wave of protests across the Middle East and North Africa in 2010 that resulted in civil unrest and armed rebellions that toppled multiple oppressive regimes. |
| ISIS | Islamic extremist terrorist movement that used social media to recruit fighters from all over the world and forced President Obama to commit more U.S. troops and resources to Iraq. |
| Iran Nuclear Agreement | International agreement with Iran in 2015 that released frozen assets in exchange for Iran agreeing to stop development and production of nuclear weapons for at least 15 years. |
| Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) | Trade agreement between the United States and 11 other Pacific countries negotiated by President Obama that was not ratified by the Senate. |
| South China Sea | Body of water in the Pacific Ocean with islands claimed by multiple Pacific nations, which has resulted in China militarizing the area and increased tensions with the United States over free navigation. |
| Ukraine | Former member of the Soviet Union that had a popular pro-Western movement in 2014, which resulted in Russia, under Vladimir Putin, annexing Crimea. |
| Vladimir Putin | President of Russia who opposed Ukraine’s pro-Western movement, annexed Crimea in 2014, brutally intervened in Syria’s civil war and launched a full invasion of Ukraine in 2022. |
| Crimea | Strategic southern peninsula of Ukraine that was annexed by Russia in 2014, which resulted in international sanctions against Russia. |
| Cuba | Communist country in the Caribbean that President Obama began normalizing relations with, which resulted in the reopening of a U.S. embassy in Havana in 2015. |
| Cyber Attacks | Attempts by hackers to damage or destroy a computer network or system, which have become major threats as part of 21st century warfare from countries such as Russia, China and Iran. |
| WikiLeaks | International organization that publishes news leaks and classified media provided by anonymous sources, such as documents and emails from Hillary Clinton’s presidential campaign in 2016. |
| Bush Tax Cuts | Major tax cuts passed under the Bush Administration when there was a budget surplus that Democrats criticized for mostly benefiting the wealthy and that have contributed to future budget deficits. |
| No Child Left Behind Act (2001) | Congressional law passed under the Bush Administration aimed to improve student performance and close the gap between well-to-do and poor students in public schools. |
| Dot Com Bubble | Stock market crash in the early 2000s caused by overspeculation in online companies and fraud committed by companies such as Enron and WorldCom. |
| Enron/WorldCom | Large companies that contributed to the dot com bubble of the early 2000s through fraud by falsifying their stated earnings and profits with the help of accounting companies. |
| Privatization | Transfer of publicly owned operations to private ownership, such as President W. Bush pushing for private companies to take over Social Security in 2004. |
| John Roberts | Conservative Supreme Court chief justice appointed by President W. Bush that has recently become a swing vote on many landmark cases. |
| Samuel Alito | Conservative Supreme Court justice appointed by President W. Bush who is known for his right wing leanings that sometimes encompass libertarian ideals. |
| Hurricane Katrina | Major natural disaster that hit New Orleans in 2005 and disproportionately affected poor and African American neighborhoods, which led to criticisms of the Bush Administration for a slow response. |
| Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) | National government agency tasked with responding to national emergencies that was notoriously slow in its response to help those affected by Hurricane Katrina. |
| Great Recession | One of the worst economic downturns since the Great Depression that was caused by a housing bubble and major banking crisis in 2008. |
| Securitization | High-risk loans packed into a variety of complex investments by financial institutions with little government regulations that helped contribute to the Great Recession. |
| Fannie Mae/Freddie Mac | Quasigovernmental mortgage institutions that were taken over completely by the national government in 2008 in response to the Great Recession. |
| Lehman Brothers | Large Wall Street investment bank that went bankrupt in 2008 as part of the Great Recession, which sparked greater calls for government intervention and regulation. |
| Troubled Assets Relief Program (TARP) | Controversial economic aid package created under the Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 that provided $700 billion to purchase failing assets from financial institutions. |
| Ponzi Scheme | Investment fraud that pays existing investors with funds collected from new investors, which helped destroy investor confidence in 2008 and helped lead to the Great Recession. |
| Sonia Sotomayor | Liberal Supreme Court justice appointed by President Obama and the first woman of color to serve on the Court. |
| Elena Kagan | Liberal leaning moderate Supreme Court justice appointed by President Obama who was also the first female solicitor general of the United States. |
| American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (2009) | Congressional law that provided a $787 billion economic stimulus package designed to create or save 3.5 million jobs. |
| Federal Reserve | Central banking system of the United States that helps regulate the economy and helped the Great Recession by lowering interest rates and injecting $600 billion dollars into the banking system. |
| Ben Bernanke | Economist and Great Depression scholar who guided the Federal Reserve’s response to the Great Recession. |
| General Motors | American automotive manufacturer that struggled during the Great Recession and was bailed out by the national government in order to save jobs. |
| Chrysler | American automotive manufacturer that struggled during the Great Recession and was temporarily bailed out by the national government in order to save jobs before being sold to Fiat. |
| “Cash for Clunkers” | Economic program that provided $3 billion in incentives to U.S. residents to scrap old cars in order to promote sales and to purchase new, more fuel-efficient vehicles. |
| Dodd-Frank Act (2010) | Congressional law designed to improve regulation of banking and investment firms and to protect taxpayers from future bailouts of businesses that were “too big to fail.” |
| Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) | Government entity created by the Dodd-Frank Act to regulate consumer products, such as mortgages and credit cards. |
| Paris Agreement | International climate treaty to reduce carbon emissions that the United States joined under President Obama in 2015, left under President Trump in 2020 and rejoined under President Biden in 2021. |
| Race to the Top | $4.35 billion United States Department of Education competitive grant created under the Obama Administration to spur and reward innovation and reforms in state and local district K–12 education. |
| Every Student Succeeds Act (2015) | Congressional law that replaced No Child Left Behind with a system that placed more emphasis on local and state flexibility. |
| Affordable Care Act (2010) | Congressional law passed under the Obama Administration that increased health insurance coverage for the uninsured and reformed the health insurance market. |
| Obamacare | Nickname given to the Affordable Care Act, which increased health insurance coverage for the uninsured and reformed the health insurance market. |
| Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act | Congressional law that strengthened protection of equal pay for female employees. |
| Tea Party | Loosely united conservative and libertarian movement that pushed the Republican Party farther to the right and the energy of the movement helped propel Republicans to take control of the House in 2010. |
| Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission | Landmark SCOTUS case that ruled corporations were “legal persons” and had the same rights as individuals to buy ads to influence political elections. |
| Mitt Romney | Former governor of Massachusetts who became the Republican nominee for president in the election of 2012, but lost to incumbent President Obama. |
| Deadlock | Increased political polarization that leads to political failure when one party controls Congress and the other part controls the presidency, such as President Obama’s second term in office. |
| Sequestrations | Automatic cuts in national spending on military and domestic programs that went into effect after President Obama and the Republican controlled Congress could not come to a budget agreement. |
| Merrick Garland | President Obama’s nomination to replace Justice Antonin Scalia that Senate majority leader Mitch McConnell refused to hold a vote on for over a year until after the next presidential election. |
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