Influential Secretary of State under Presidents Lincoln and Johnson who helped prevent European countries from entering the Civil War and organized the purchase of Alaska from Russia.

United States foreign policy issued by President Monroe, but created by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams that declared the western hemisphere off limits to further European colonization.

Acquisition of a vast northern territory from Russia that was organized by Secretary of State William H. Seward and was initially ridiculed by the American public as “Seward’s Folly.”

Pacific islands that were greatly desired by the United States for its great harbors, strategic location in important sea-lanes and rich soil for sugar production.

Large natural harbor in Hawaii that the United States greatly valued for strategic economic, political and military reasons, which eventually led to conflict with the Japanese during WWII.

Hawaiian monarch overthrown by American settlers in response to her reform efforts aimed at helping native Hawaiians.

22nd and 24th President of the United States who opposed American imperialism and blocked Republican efforts to annex Hawaii.

Colonial expansion during the 19th and early 20th centuries adopted by European powers and eventually by Japan and the United States in order to expand economic, political and military power.

U.S. Navy Captain and historian who argued that a strong navy was crucial to maintaining a world power in his influential book The Influence of Sea Power Upon History.

Belief that Charles Darwin’s ideas of natural selection and survival of the fittest should be applied to humanity in terms of business and the competition between countries.

Americans who wanted the United States to acquire territories overseas in order to expand the economic, political and military power of the United States.

Reverend who believed in Social Darwinism and spread his belief that Protestant Americans had a religious duty to colonize other lands and spread Christianity, American culture and American influence.

President Benjamin Harrison’s Secretary of State who advanced the ideas of the Monroe Doctrine by establishing the first meeting of the Pan-American Conference in 1889.

Pan-American Conference

Meeting in 1889 between the United States and other Western Hemisphere countries that created a permanent organization to promote cooperation on trade and other issues.

President Cleveland’s Secretary of State who used the Monroe Doctrine to successfully insist that Great Britain agree to arbitrate the Venezuela boundary dispute.

Venezuela Boundary Dispute

Border crisis between Venezuela and British Guiana that ended because of American diplomacy, which improved American relations with Latin American countries and the British.

Armed conflict between the United States and Spain over territory in Latin America and Asia that was partially caused by yellow journalism and ended in a quick American victory.

Intense form of nationalism that favors an aggressive and warlike foreign policy.

Cuban nationalist attempt to overthrow Spanish colonial rule between 1868 and 1878 that was renewed in 1895 and brutally put down by the Spanish.

Sensationalist reporting that was used especially by Pulitzer’s New York World and Hearst’s New York Journal and helped convince the American public to support war against Spain.

Spanish diplomat’s critical and insulting letter about President McKinley that was leaked to the press and printed in Hearst’ ’s New York Journal, which increased American tensions with Spain.

Sinking of the USS Maine

American battleship at anchor in Havana, Cuba exploded and the yellow press accused Spain of deliberately blowing up the ship, which increased American tensions with Spain.

Part of Congress’s joint resolution authorizing war against Spain that declared the United States had no intention of annexing Cuba and that the Cubans would be granted independence.

Nickname given to the Spanish-American War by Secretary of State John Hay because of the swift American victory.

Large group of islands in Asia that had been under Spanish control since the 1500s and was conquered quickly by the United States during the Spanish-American War with the aid of Filipino rebels.

U.S. Navy Commodore who commanded the new, all-steel U.S. Navy and quickly pounded the Spanish fleet into submission in Manila Bay in the Philippines.

Regiment of volunteer cavalry soldiers of the U.S. Army led by Theodore Roosevelt that became famous for a cavalry charge up San Juan Hill in Cuba.

Complete political takeover of the Hawaiian Islands by the United States in 1900, which was approved by President McKinley and Congress.

Island in the Caribbean that the United States acquired from Spain as part of the Treaty of Paris to end the Spanish-American War.

Island in the Pacific that the United States acquired from Spain as part of the Treaty of Paris to end the Spanish-American War.

Treaty of Paris (1898)

Peace agreement that officially ended the Spanish-American War and resulted in the United States acquiring Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines.

Filipino nationalist leader who fought alongside U.S. troops during the Spanish-American War and later led guerrilla fighters in a deadly campaign against the United States for independence.

Anti-Imperialist League

Organization that opposed the Spanish-American War and American imperialism, which was led by William Jennings Bryan and Mark Twain.

Series of Supreme Court decisions from 1901-1903 that ruled constitutional rights were not automatically extended to territorial possessions and the power to give such rights belonged to Congress.

Platt Amendment (1901)

Override of the Teller Amendment that put restrictions on Cuban independence and effectively made Cuba a U.S. protectorate until the Cuban Revolution in the 1950s.

President McKinley’s Secretary of State who advanced the Open Door policy in an attempt to prevent European countries from taking over China and blocking American economic interests.

Regions and/or ports of China that a specific foreign country dominated in terms of trade and investment, which greatly alarmed Secretary of State John Hay and the United States.

Influential foreign policy created by Secretary of State John Hay that all nations should have equal trade access to China and that no one country should dominate trade access with China.

Secret society of Chinese nationalists attacked foreign settlements and murdered dozens of Christian missionaries, which resulted in an international armed response and severely weakened China.

Influential and aggressive foreign policy under President Theodore Roosevelt that involved using the threat of military force if necessary to solve international disputes.

War hero and 26th President of the United States who implemented his “Big Stick” Policy for foreign affairs and his Square Deal program for domestic affairs.

Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903)

Agreement between the controversially formed country of Panama and the United States that gave the United States control and construction rights over a 10 mile wide Canal Zone.

Water connection between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans that was successfully built by the United States through Central America.

Capital of the Dominican Republic that was almost invaded by European powers over unpaid debts, which resulted in President Theodore Roosevelt issuing the Roosevelt Corollary.

President Theodore Roosevelt’s addition to the Monroe Doctrine that declared the United States would intervene in cases of flagrant and chronic wrongdoing by a Latin American country.

Conflict between imperial rivals Russia and Japan that ended with a Japanese victory after the Treaty of Portsmouth, which was mediated by President Theodore Roosevelt.

Treaty of Portsmouth (1906)

Peace agreement that ended the Russo-Japanese War, however, the Japanese accused the United States of failing to give them what they believed they deserved from Russia.

Gentlemen’s Agreement (1908)

Informal agreement between the United States and Japan that restricted Japanese immigration to the United States in exchange for California repealing Japanese discriminatory laws.

Institutions of learning that separated students based on race and ethnicity, which Japan viewed as a national insult because of San Francisco separating Japanese students.

Name given to the top of the line battleships of the U.S. Navy that President Theodore Roosevelt sent on a world tour to demonstrate U.S. naval power.

Root-Takahira Agreement (1908)

Official understanding between the United States and Japan that pledged mutual respect for each nation’s Pacific possessions and support for the Open Door policy in China.

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Unit 7

All Vocabulary

Term	Definition
William H. Seward	Influential Secretary of State under Presidents Lincoln and Johnson who helped prevent European countries from entering the Civil War and organized the purchase of Alaska from Russia.
Monroe Doctrine	United States foreign policy issued by President Monroe, but created by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams that declared the western hemisphere off limits to further European colonization.
Purchase of Alaska	Acquisition of a vast northern territory from Russia that was organized by Secretary of State William H. Seward and was initially ridiculed by the American public as “Seward’s Folly.”
Hawaii	Pacific islands that were greatly desired by the United States for its great harbors, strategic location in important sea-lanes and rich soil for sugar production.
Pearl Harbor	Large natural harbor in Hawaii that the United States greatly valued for strategic economic, political and military reasons, which eventually led to conflict with the Japanese during WWII.
Queen Liliuokalani	Hawaiian monarch overthrown by American settlers in response to her reform efforts aimed at helping native Hawaiians.
Grover Cleveland	22nd and 24th President of the United States who opposed American imperialism and blocked Republican efforts to annex Hawaii.
New Imperialism	Colonial expansion during the 19th and early 20th centuries adopted by European powers and eventually by Japan and the United States in order to expand economic, political and military power.
Alfred Thayer Mahan	U.S. Navy Captain and historian who argued that a strong navy was crucial to maintaining a world power in his influential book The Influence of Sea Power Upon History.
Darwinism	Belief that Charles Darwin’s ideas of natural selection and survival of the fittest should be applied to humanity in terms of business and the competition between countries.
Expansionists	Americans who wanted the United States to acquire territories overseas in order to expand the economic, political and military power of the United States.
Josiah Strong	Reverend who believed in Social Darwinism and spread his belief that Protestant Americans had a religious duty to colonize other lands and spread Christianity, American culture and American influence.
James G. Blaine	President Benjamin Harrison’s Secretary of State who advanced the ideas of the Monroe Doctrine by establishing the first meeting of the Pan-American Conference in 1889.
Pan-American Conference	Meeting in 1889 between the United States and other Western Hemisphere countries that created a permanent organization to promote cooperation on trade and other issues.
Richard Olney	President Cleveland’s Secretary of State who used the Monroe Doctrine to successfully insist that Great Britain agree to arbitrate the Venezuela boundary dispute.
Venezuela Boundary Dispute	Border crisis between Venezuela and British Guiana that ended because of American diplomacy, which improved American relations with Latin American countries and the British.
Spanish-American War	Armed conflict between the United States and Spain over territory in Latin America and Asia that was partially caused by yellow journalism and ended in a quick American victory.
Jingoism	Intense form of nationalism that favors an aggressive and warlike foreign policy.
Cuban Revolt	Cuban nationalist attempt to overthrow Spanish colonial rule between 1868 and 1878 that was renewed in 1895 and brutally put down by the Spanish.
Yellow Journalism	Sensationalist reporting that was used especially by Pulitzer’s New York World and Hearst’s New York Journal and helped convince the American public to support war against Spain.
De Lôme Letter	Spanish diplomat’s critical and insulting letter about President McKinley that was leaked to the press and printed in Hearst’ ’s New York Journal, which increased American tensions with Spain.
Sinking of the USS Maine	American battleship at anchor in Havana, Cuba exploded and the yellow press accused Spain of deliberately blowing up the ship, which increased American tensions with Spain.
Teller Amendment	Part of Congress’s joint resolution authorizing war against Spain that declared the United States had no intention of annexing Cuba and that the Cubans would be granted independence.
Splendid Little War	Nickname given to the Spanish-American War by Secretary of State John Hay because of the swift American victory.
Philippines	Large group of islands in Asia that had been under Spanish control since the 1500s and was conquered quickly by the United States during the Spanish-American War with the aid of Filipino rebels.
George Dewey	U.S. Navy Commodore who commanded the new, all-steel U.S. Navy and quickly pounded the Spanish fleet into submission in Manila Bay in the Philippines.
Rough Riders	Regiment of volunteer cavalry soldiers of the U.S. Army led by Theodore Roosevelt that became famous for a cavalry charge up San Juan Hill in Cuba.
Annexation of Hawaii	Complete political takeover of the Hawaiian Islands by the United States in 1900, which was approved by President McKinley and Congress.
Puerto Rico	Island in the Caribbean that the United States acquired from Spain as part of the Treaty of Paris to end the Spanish-American War.
Guam	Island in the Pacific that the United States acquired from Spain as part of the Treaty of Paris to end the Spanish-American War.
Treaty of Paris (1898)	Peace agreement that officially ended the Spanish-American War and resulted in the United States acquiring Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines.
Emilio Aguinaldo	Filipino nationalist leader who fought alongside U.S. troops during the Spanish-American War and later led guerrilla fighters in a deadly campaign against the United States for independence.
Anti-Imperialist League	Organization that opposed the Spanish-American War and American imperialism, which was led by William Jennings Bryan and Mark Twain.
Insular Cases	Series of Supreme Court decisions from 1901-1903 that ruled constitutional rights were not automatically extended to territorial possessions and the power to give such rights belonged to Congress.
Platt Amendment (1901)	Override of the Teller Amendment that put restrictions on Cuban independence and effectively made Cuba a U.S. protectorate until the Cuban Revolution in the 1950s.
John Hay	President McKinley’s Secretary of State who advanced the Open Door policy in an attempt to prevent European countries from taking over China and blocking American economic interests.
Spheres of Influence	Regions and/or ports of China that a specific foreign country dominated in terms of trade and investment, which greatly alarmed Secretary of State John Hay and the United States.
Open Door Policy	Influential foreign policy created by Secretary of State John Hay that all nations should have equal trade access to China and that no one country should dominate trade access with China.
Boxer Rebellion	Secret society of Chinese nationalists attacked foreign settlements and murdered dozens of Christian missionaries, which resulted in an international armed response and severely weakened China.
Big Stick Policy	Influential and aggressive foreign policy under President Theodore Roosevelt that involved using the threat of military force if necessary to solve international disputes.
Theodore Roosevelt	War hero and 26th President of the United States who implemented his “Big Stick” Policy for foreign affairs and his Square Deal program for domestic affairs.
Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903)	Agreement between the controversially formed country of Panama and the United States that gave the United States control and construction rights over a 10 mile wide Canal Zone.
Panama Canal	Water connection between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans that was successfully built by the United States through Central America.
Santo Domingo	Capital of the Dominican Republic that was almost invaded by European powers over unpaid debts, which resulted in President Theodore Roosevelt issuing the Roosevelt Corollary.
Roosevelt Corollary	President Theodore Roosevelt’s addition to the Monroe Doctrine that declared the United States would intervene in cases of flagrant and chronic wrongdoing by a Latin American country.
Russo-Japanese War	Conflict between imperial rivals Russia and Japan that ended with a Japanese victory after the Treaty of Portsmouth, which was mediated by President Theodore Roosevelt.
Treaty of Portsmouth (1906)	Peace agreement that ended the Russo-Japanese War, however, the Japanese accused the United States of failing to give them what they believed they deserved from Russia.
Gentlemen’s Agreement (1908)	Informal agreement between the United States and Japan that restricted Japanese immigration to the United States in exchange for California repealing Japanese discriminatory laws.
Segregated Schools	Institutions of learning that separated students based on race and ethnicity, which Japan viewed as a national insult because of San Francisco separating Japanese students.
Great White Fleet	Name given to the top of the line battleships of the U.S. Navy that President Theodore Roosevelt sent on a world tour to demonstrate U.S. naval power.
Root-Takahira Agreement (1908)	Official understanding between the United States and Japan that pledged mutual respect for each nation’s Pacific possessions and support for the Open Door policy in China.
Nobel Peace Prize	Award for significantly contributing to advancing human rights and reducing aggression between nations, which President Theodore Roosevelt won for helping end the Russo-Japanese War.
Algeciras Conference	Diplomatic meeting organized by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906 to settle conflict between France and Germany over claims to Morocco.
International Peace Conference	Diplomatic meeting to discuss rules limiting warfare between countries at The Hague in 1907 that President Theodore Roosevelt directed the United States to attend as a world power.
William Howard Taft	27th President of the United States and handpicked successor to President Theodore Roosevelt. who focused on “dollar diplomacy” for foreign affairs and busted more trusts than Roosevelt.
Dollar Diplomacy	Foreign policy of President Taft that focused on using economic support and investment to advance American interests, rather than the threat of military force.
Anti-Imperialism	Movement against the territorial expansion of the United States, the building of colonies and the further entanglement of the United States in foreign affairs.
Railroads in China	Transportation networks in China that President Taft wanted to include as part of his “Dollar Diplomacy” in order to protect and expand American interests in China.
Manchuria	Northern province of China that Russia and Japan agreed to split as a sphere of influence in violation of the U.S. Open Door Policy, which set the stage for a future invasion by Japan.
Intervention in Nicaragua	American military involvement in Nicaragua ordered by President Taft in 1911 to protect American investments, which lasted until 1933.
Woodrow Wilson	28th President of the United States who focused on moral diplomacy for foreign affairs and implemented his New Freedom program for domestic affairs.
William Jennings Bryan	Former Democratic presidential candidate and President Wilson’s Secretary of State who helped implement moral diplomacy, which included opposition to self-interested imperialism.
Jones Act (1916)	Law of Congress promoted by President Wilson that granted full territorial status to the Philippines and set the path for independence as soon as a stable government was established.
Conciliation Treaties	International agreements organized by Secretary of State William Jennigsn Bryan and approved by President Wilson, in which countries agreed to submit disputes to international commissions.
Military Intervention	Tactic used often by President Wilson to use armed force in diplomatic disputes with Central American and Caribbean nations, which was contradictory to his moral diplomacy philosophy.
Pancho Villa	Mexican rebel leader who challenged the Mexican government and led multiple raids across the U.S.-Mexican border, which resulted in President Wilson ordering General Pershing to pursue him.
John J. Pershing	U.S. Army General who led an “expeditionary force” in a failed pursuit of Pancho Villa and who later became the successful leader of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) during WWI.
Expeditionary Force	Group of U.S. Army troops led by General Pershing in the failed pursuit of Pancho Villa.
Progressivism	Movement of a diverse group of reformers in the early 1900s who believed that the government needed to make societal changes to limit the power of big business and strengthen social justice.
Urban Middle Class	Relatively financially stable people who typically were white-collar workers that lived in cities and generally made up the bulk of Progressivism's support.
Professional Associations	Organizations of specific licensed workers that provided platforms to address corrupt business and government practices and urban social and economic problems.
Protestants	Group of Christians who typically supported the Social Gospel popularized by Walter Rauschenbush as a response to the problem of urban poverty.
Older Stock	Families of older elites who were often native-born Protestants and felt that their central role in society had been replaced by wealthy industrialists and urban political machines.
Pragmatism	Philosophy that challenged romantic transcendentalism by arguing the true value of an idea lay in its ability to solve problems and the use of experimentation to discover solutions to societal problems.
William James	Philosopher who helped develop the idea of pragmatism by arguing truth should be able to pass the public test of observable results in an open, democratic society.
John Dewey	Leading advocate for pragmatism who applied it to education by promoting learning through experience.
Frederick W. Taylor	Efficiency expert who developed the scientific management system to organize factory workers in the most efficient ways possible by standardizing tools, equipment and methods.
Scientific Management	System of organizing workers in the most efficient ways possible by standardizing tools, equipment and methods, which was developed by Frederick W. Taylor.
Muckrakers	Progressive investigative journalists who created in-depth articles to inspire reform of societal ills such as child labor, corrupt political bosses and monopolistic business practices.
Henry Demarest Lloyd	Early muckraker from Chicago who in 1881 wrote a series of articles for the Atlantic Monthly attacking the practices of the Standard Oil Company and the railroads.
Standard Oil Company	Oil company and trust founded by John D. Rockefeller, which grew to control nearly all American oil production and distribution and formulated the horizontal integration business tactic.
Lincoln Steffens	Muckraker who wrote a series of articles called Tweed Days in St. Louis in McClure’s Magazine in 1902, which exposed corruption in city government and political machines.
Ida Tarbell	Muckraker who wrote a series of articles called The History of the Standard Oil Company in McClure’s Magazine in 1902, which exposed the monopolistic practices of Standard Oil.
Jacob Riis	Muckraker who in 1890 published How the Other Half Lives, a book of photographs that exposed the terrible and unsanitary living conditions for the urban poor in tenements.
How the Other Half Lives	Book of photographs that exposed the terrible and unsanitary living conditions for the urban poor in tenements that was published by muckraker Jacob Riis.
Theodore Dreiser	Muckraking novelist who published The Financier and The Titan, fictional tales that portrayed the avarice and ruthlessness of industrialists.
Secret Ballot (Australian Ballot)	Voting tickets printed and issued by state governments that required voters to mark their choices secretly in a private booth in order to prevent voter intimidation.
Robert La Follette	Progressive governor of Wisconsin who in 1903 introduced the direct primary, a new system for bypassing politicians and placing the nominating process directly in the hands of the voters.
Direct Primary	New system for bypassing politicians and placing the nominating process directly in the hands of the voters that was introduced in 1903 by Wisconsin Governor Robert La Follette.
17th Amendment	Progressive amendment that required all U.S. Senators be elected directly by the people through popular vote.
Initiative	Method introduced at the state and local level by Progressives by which voters can put a proposed statute on the ballot.
Referendum	Method introduced at the state and local level by Progressives by which citizens can vote to uphold or repeal a law.
Recall	Method introduced at the state and local level by Progressives by which citizens can vote to remove a politician from office before that official’s term has expired.
Municipal Reform	Changes to political policies and programs at the local level, which Progressives such as Toledo Mayor Samuel M. Jones used to offer free kindergartens, night schools and public playgrounds.
Public Utilities	Local government ownership over water, gas lines, electricity and urban transportation systems, which many Progressives pushed for and achieved in cities across the United States.
Commission Plan	Local form of government advanced by Progressives, in which voters elected the heads of city departments and not just the mayor.
Manager-Council Plan	Local form of government advanced by Progressives that spread rapidly, in which an elected city council hired an expert manager to direct the work of various city departments.
Charles Evans Hughes	Progressive New York governor known for instituting a wide range of reforms in an attempt to battle corruption, including fraudulent insurance companies.
Hiram Johnson	Progressive California governor known for instituting a wide range of reforms in an attempt to battle corruption, including fighting the economic and political power of the Southern Pacific Railroad.
Wisconsin Plan	Series of progressive measures Governor La Follette of Wisconsin championed into law, such as a direct primary law, tax reform and state regulatory commissions to monitor utilities and businesses.
Regulatory Commissions	Government organizations that monitored utilities, railroads and businesses such as insurance, which were pushed for by Progressives to combat corruption and monopolistic practices.
Temperance	Reform movement to limit or eliminate the consumption of alcohol because of the high rate of alcohol consumption and connections to various societal ills such as crime, poverty and abuse of women.
Prohibition	Outlawing the manufacture and sale of alcohol, which temperance leaders achieved at the state level in two-thirds of the states by 1915 and the national level with the 18th Amendment in 1920.
National Child Labor Committee	Progressive organization that proposed model state child labor laws that were passed by two-thirds of the states by 1907, which included state compulsory school attendance.
Compulsory School Attendance	Legal requirement for children of certain ages to be in school, which the Progressives used to help keep children out of mines and factories.
Florence Kelley	Progressive reformer and child labor activist who helped found the National Consumers’ League to help promote state laws to improve wages and working conditions for women workers.
National Consumers’ League	Progressive organization partially founded by Florence Kelley that helped promote state laws to improve wages and working conditions for women workers.
Lochner v. New York	Landmark SCOTUS case that ruled a New York state law setting maximum working hours for bakers violated the bakers' right to freedom of contract under the Fourteenth Amendment.
Muller v. Oregon	Landmark SCOTUS case that ruled an Oregon law limiting women to ten hours of work in factories and laundries was legal because women’s health needed special protection from long hours.
Triangle Shirtwaist Fire	Fire in a New York high-rise garment factory that took 146 lives, mostly women, and sparked greater women’s activism and stronger safety laws that improved working conditions in factories.
Square Deal	President Theodore Roosevelt’s domestic program that involved the government treating business owners and labor fairly and eliminating government favoritism of big business.
Trust-Busting	Government break up of monopolies, which President Theodore Roosevelt did with the Sherman Antitrust Act and earned the name “Trustbuster,” even though President Taft broke up more trusts.
Bad Trusts	Monopolies that President Theodore Roosevelt targeted for trust-busting because he believed they harmed the public good and stifled competition.
Good Trusts	Monopolies that President Theodore Roosevelt simply regulated or left alone because he believed they dominated a market because of their efficiency and low prices.
Elkins Act (1903)	Congressional law that gave the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) greater authority to stop railroads from granting rebates to favored customers.
Hepburn Act (1906)	Congressional law that gave the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) greater authority to fix “just and reasonable” rates for railroads.
The Jungle	Book published by muckraker novelist Upton Sinclair that exposed the horrifying and unsanitary conditions in the Chicago stockyards and meatpacking industry, which sparked new reform laws.
Upton Sinclair	Muckraker novelist who published The Jungle, which exposed the horrifying and unsanitary conditions in the Chicago stockyards and meatpacking industry and sparked new reform laws.
Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)	Congressional law inspired by Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle, which outlawed the manufacture, sale and transportation of adulterated or mislabeled foods and drugs.
Meat Inspection Act (1906)	Congressional law inspired by Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle, which provided that federal inspectors visit meatpacking plants to ensure that they met minimum standards of sanitation.
Conservation	Environmental movement that believed in the protection, scientific management and regulated use of natural resources, which was championed by President Theodore Roosevelt.
Newlands Reclamation Act (1902)	Congressional conservation law that provided money from the sale of public land to irrigation projects in western states.
White House Conference	Meeting of state governors and national government representatives hosted by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1908 in order to promote coordinated conservation planning.
Gifford Pinchot	Conservationist and government official President Theodore Roosevelt appointed to be the first director of the U.S. Forest Service and leader of the National Conservation Commission.
Mann-Elkins Act (1910)	Congressional law that gave the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) the power to suspend new railroad rates and to oversee telephone and telegraph companies.
16th Amendment	Progressive amendment that authorized the U.S. government to collect an income tax, which Progressives championed as a way to regulate the wealthy.
Firing of Pinchot	Controversial decision by President Taft to terminate Gifford Pinchot’s position in the national government, which angered former President Theodore Roosevelt and Republican Progressives.
Payne-Aldrich Tariff	Increased tax on imports that President Taft approved in 1909 despite promising to lower the tax, which angered Progressives and helped create a split in the Republican Party.
Election of 1912	Presidential election that saw Republicans split, with conservatives nominating President Taft and Progressives nominating Theodore Roosevelt, which allowed Democrat Woodrow Wilson to win.
Socialist Party	Third political party that emerged in the early 1900s through the leadership of Eugene V. Debs to advocate for the working class by calling for the public ownership of utilities and major industries.
Eugene V. Debs	Socialist Party leader and presidential candidate who was arrested for his involvement in the Pullman Strike who had some of his ideas eventually adopted such as public ownership of utilities.
Bull Moose Party	Political organization formed by Progressive Republicans who nominated Theodore Roosevelt as their candidate in the election of 1912 because they were dissatisfied with President Taft.
New Nationalism	Theodore Roosevelt’s Progressive domestic platform for the election of 1912 that included more government regulation of business and unions, more social welfare programs and women’s suffrage.
New Freedom	President Wilson’s domestic policy plan that involved limiting big business and big government, reform through eliminating corruption and reviving competition by supporting small businesses.
Underwood Tariff	Substantially lower tax on imported goods pushed for by President Wilson as part of his New Freedom plan, which was compensated for by a national graduated income tax.
Federal Reserve Act (1914)	Congressional law that created a new national bank system, which was designed to provide economic stability by regulating interest rates and required capital reserves of banks.
Federal Reserve Board	Presidentially appointed supervisors of the new national banking system, which included 12 district banks and was meant to act as an independent monetary policy entity.
Federal Trade Commission (FTC)	Government entity created under President Wilson that was designed to protect consumers by investigating and taking action against “unfair trade practice” in any industry.
Clayton Antitrust Act (1914)	Congressional law that strengthened the Sherman Antitrust Act’s power to break up monopolies, but contained a clause exempting unions from being prosecuted as trusts.
Federal Farm Loan Act (1916)	Congressional law passed during Wilson’s presidency that created 12 regional federal farm loan banks established to provide farm loans at low interest rates.
Child Labor Act (1916)	Congressional law passed that prohibited the interstate shipment of products manufactured by children under 14 years old, however, it was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
Racial Segregation	Separation of people based on race, which was legalized in Plessy v. Ferguson and exemplified Progressives apathy toward improving race relations.
Lynchings	Murder of African Americans by racist mobs for falsely accused crimes, which Ida B. Wells tried to stop, but most Progressives ignored in their quest for reform.
Booker T. Washington	Founder of the Tuskegee Institute who urged African Americans to address racism by using economic cooperation to gain gradual improvements in their social, political, and economic status.
W.E.B. Du Bois	Opposed to Booker T. Washington’s “gradualist” approach to equality, he argued for immediate and full equality socially, politically, and economically and he co-founded the NAACP.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)	Civil rights organization founded to abolish all forms of segregation and increase educational opportunities for African American children.
National Urban League	National organization formed in 1911 to help people migrating from the South to adjust to northern cities.
18th Amendment	Progressive amendment that outlawed the manufacture and sale of alcohol in the United States until it was repealed by the 21st Amendment.
Carrie Chapman Catt	Energetic Progressive women’s rights reformer from Iowa who became the new president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1900.
National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)	National organization founded to help women secure the right to vote at the state level first, but eventually advocated for a national suffrage amendment.
Alice Paul	Women’s suffrage leader who adopted a more militant approach by breaking from NAWSA in 1916 to form the National Woman’s Party in order to advocate for a national suffrage amendment.
National Woman’s Party	Political organization founded by Alice Paul in 1916 when she split from NAWSA in order to focus on advocating for a national suffrage amendment.
19th Amendment	Progressive amendment passed in 1920 that guaranteed women’s right to vote in all elections at the local, state and national levels.
League of Women Voters	Civic organization founded by Carrie Chapman Catt to keep female voters informed about candidates and issues.
Margaret Sanger	Progressive women’s rights activist who advocated for birth control education, especially among the poor.
Neutrality	U.S. government’s tradition of noninvolvement in foreign affairs, which was started by President Washington and President Jefferson and continued at first by President Wilson in regards to WWI.
Allied Powers	Victorious alliance of Great Britain, France and Russia against the Central Powers during WWI, which the United States eventually joined upon its entrance to the war.
Central Powers	Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire that was defeated by the Allied Powers during WWI.
Submarine Warfare	New type of underwater naval weapons that Germany used to great effect during WWI, however, Germany’s unrestricted use of the weapons helped push the United States into the war.
Sinking of the Lusitania	British passenger liner destroyed by German submarines, which resulted in 128 American deaths and pushed the United States toward entering WWI.
Sussex Pledge	German diplomatic promise to the United States to not sink merchant or passenger ships without giving due warning after sinking the Lusitania, Arabic and Sussex.
Propaganda	Media used to influence public opinion, such as the British supplying stories of German war atrocities to the American press to sway U.S. popular opinion toward the Allied Powers.
Ethnic Influences	Sympathies toward various countries of the Allied and Central Powers based on ancestry, such as German-American sympathy toward Germany.
Preparedness	Concept of greater defense expenditures when a country is not at war in order to be ready for a potential major conflict, such as the United States before entering WWI.
Jeannette Rankin	First woman elected to Congress and a peace-minded Progressive who voted against U.S. entry into WWI and was the only vote against U.S. entry into WWII.
Election of 1916	Presidential election in which the Republic Party reunified, but President Wilson still won because of his strong Progressive leadership and neutrality views.
“He Kept Us Out of War”	Successful campaign slogan for Democratic President Wilson’s reelection campaign in the election of 1916 that focused on President Wilson’s views on neutrality.
Edward House	President Wilson’s chief foreign policy adviser and U.S. colonel who tried unsuccessfully to negotiate a peace settlement to WWI between Great Britain, France and Germany.
Zimmerman Telegram	Telegram from a German foreign minister to Mexican officials proposing an alliance against the United States, which was intercepted by the British, published and sparked American outrage.
Russian Revolution	Overthrow of the Russian Czar and the creation of a republic in March of 1917, which transitioned to a communist revolution in November of 1917.
Declaration of War	Official government announcement of hostilities with another nation, such as Congress overwhelmingly voting in favor of hostilities with the Central Powers in April 1917.
Bolsheviks	Russian Communists who took over Russia in November of 1917 and eventually removed Russia from WWI by signing a peace treaty with the Central Powers in 1918.
American Expeditionary Force (AEF)	U.S. Army troops led by General Pershing that were sent to Europe once the United States entered WWI in 1917 in order to help the Allied Powers defeat the Central Powers.
John J. Pershing	U.S. Army General who led an “expeditionary force” in a failed pursuit of Pancho Villa and who later became the successful leader of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) during WWI.
Western Front	Line of trenches and fortifications between Allied Powers and German forces that was known for fierce fighting, high casualties and being the focus of German efforts after the Russian surrender.
November 11, 1918	Day that the Germans agreed to an armistice, officially ending fighting in WWI, but setting the stage for tense peace negotiations between the Allied Powers.
“Peace Without Victory”	Famous speech President Wilson gave to Congress in January of 1917, in which he stated he hoped to diplomatically end WWI and laid out his peace ambitions for the postwar world.
Fourteen Points	President Wilson’s idealistic peace program for WWI, which included arms reduction, free trade, self-determination and the creation of a League of Nations to protect peace and resolve conflicts.
Big Four	Leaders of the victorious Allied Powers in WWI, which included David Llyod George of Great Britain, Georges Clemenceau of France, Vittorio Orlando of Italy and President Wilson for the United States.
Treaty of Versailles	Peace agreement forced on Germany after WWI that did not include many of President Wilson’s 14 Points, severely punished Germany and ultimately was not agreed to by the United States.
Self-Determination	Idea that various peoples should get to form their own state and choose their own government, which was part of President Wilson’s 14 Points.
League of Nations	International diplomatic organization pushed for by President Wilson as part of his 14 Points, which was created through the Treaty of Versailles, but was rejected by the United States Senate.
Article X	Controversial part of the League of Nations charter that would force the United States to enter into international conflicts if a member of the League of Nations was attacked, which infuriated isolationists.
Henry Cabot Lodge	Leading Senate Republican who led the reservationist faction in opposition to the Treaty of Versailles, specifically Article X of the League of nations charter.
Irreconcilables	Senators who could not accept U.S. membership in the League of Nations because of Article X and it did not matter to them what reservations were added.
Reservationists	Senators who could accept U.S. membership to the League of Nations, but only if certain reservations were added to Article X of the League of Nations charter.
Rejection of the Treaty of Versailles	Senate vote to oppose the Treaty of Versailles, which resulted in the United States not joining the League of Nations and signing a separate peace treaty with Germany.
Mobilization	Action of a government preparing and organizing the country for active service, such as the Wilson administration rapidly pivoting the U.S. economy to war production in order to enter WWI.
War Industries Board	Government agency led by Bernard Baruch, which set production priorities and established centralized control over raw materials and prices in order to prepare for U.S. entry into WWI.
Food Administration	Government agency led by Herbert Hoover, which successfully encouraged American households to eat less meat and bread so that more food could be shipped abroad to Allied troops.
Railroad Administration	Government agency led by Treasury Secretary William McAdoo, which took public control of the railroads to coordinate traffic and promote standardized railroad equipment.
National War Labor Board	Government agency led by former President Taft, which helped arbitrate disputes between workers and employers, such as higher wages and the eight-hour work day.
Liberty Bonds	War bonds issued by the U.S. Treasury in four installments between 1917 and 1918 as a means to finance the Allied war effort in Europe and U.S. participation in WWI.
George Creel	Journalist and leader of the Committee on Public Information, which enlisted the voluntary services of artists, writers, vaudeville performers and movie stars to promote the U.S. war effort in WWI.
Committee on Public Information	Propaganda government agency led by George Creel, which enlisted the services of artists, writers, vaudeville performers and movie stars to promote the U.S. war effort in WWI.
Barred Zone Act (1917)	Congressional law that prohibited anyone residing in a region from the Middle East to southeast Asia from entering the United States and implemented a literacy test for immigrants.
Espionage Act (1917)	Congressional law that provided for imprisonment of up to 20 years for persons who tried to incite rebellion in the armed forces or obstructed the draft.
Sedition Act (1918)	Congressional law that went far beyond the Espionage Act by prohibiting anyone from making “disloyal” or “abusive” remarks about the U.S. government.
Eugene V. Debs	Labor advocate and Socialist leader who was sentenced to ten years in federal prison for speaking out against U.S. participation in WWI.
Schenck v. United States	Landmark SCOTUS case that upheld the constitutionality of the Espionage Act by ruling that free speech could be limited when it represented a "clear and present danger" to public safety.
Selective Service Act (1917)	Congressional law that established the draft lottery system still in use today and was specifically created to help raise troops for U.S. entry into WWI.
Service by African Americans	Unfulfilled hope held by W.E.B. Du Bois that the almost 400,000 African Americans who served valiantly in WWI in segregated units would have equal rights when they returned.
Jobs for Women	Increased employment opportunities for women as men volunteered for or were drafted into the military during WWI, which contributed to the war cause and increased support for women’s suffrage.
Migration of Mexicans	Thousands of Mexicans came to the United States for job opportunities created by the war effort during WWI, but also to escape the upheavals of a revolution in Mexico.
The Great Migration	Large scale movement of African Americans from the South into the North because of deteriorating race relations in the South and employment opportunities in the North because of the war effort.
1918 Pandemic	Severe influenza outbreak that infected an estimated 500 million people worldwide and claimed an estimated 50 million lives, but the rapid spread was underreported to keep up morale during war.
Recession	Economic downturn, such as the economic plunge that occurred in 1921 after the business boom of war efforts during WWI stopped and unemployment levels reached 10%.
Red Scare	Widespread anti-Communist hysteria in the United States following WWI, which resulted in immigration restrictions and the dangerous Palmer Raids.
Anti-German Hysteria	Widespread fear and negative feelings toward anything or anyone German, which occurred in the United States during WWI.
Anti-communist Hysteria	Widespread fear and negative feelings toward anything or anyone communist, which happened during the Red Scare after WWI.
Xenophobia	Prejudice against people from other countries, which became widespread in the United States during and after WWI through events such as the Red Scare.
Palmer Raids	Mass investigations and arrests of suspected anarchists, socialists and labor agitators based on limited to no criminal evidence as part of the Red Scare.
Strikes of 1919	Series of labor disputes in 1919 that ended with troops being called in, some of which ended in considerable violence.
Race Riots	Eruptions of violence over race relations, such as the 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre, in which white mobs destroyed over 1,000 Black-owned homes and businesses in an area known as Black Wall Street.
Economic Prosperity	Time of significant economic growth and security, such as most of the 1920s in the United States, which became known as the Roaring 20s.
Roaring 20s	Nickname for the 1920s in the United States because of the lengthy period of economic prosperity between the end of WWI and the start of the Great Depression.
Standard of Living	Degree of wealth available to a person or community, which determines how much material comfort a person or community can afford.
Scientific Management	System of organizing workers in the most efficient ways possible by standardizing tools, equipment and methods, which was developed by Frederick W. Taylor.
Henry Ford	Automobile industrialist who perfected the moving assembly line for manufacturing cars and helped revolutionize American culture by introducing the affordable Model T.
Assembly Line	System of manufacturing that drastically improves efficiency through breaking the manufacturing process down into simple and easily repeatable tasks for workers.
Consumer Appliances	Machines utilized by the average household that became popular during the 1920s because of advancements in electricity, manufacturing and advertising.
Impact of the Automobile	Cultural change caused by a new transportation machine that families could own and use to live in suburbs and commute to work and gave a new sense of independence to young drivers.
Open Shop	Business policy of allowing jobs to be available to nonunion workers.
Welfare Capitalism	Business practice of voluntarily offering improved benefits and higher wages in order to reduce worker interest in unionization.
Industrial Design	Fusion of art and technology into a new profession, which focused on creating functional products that had aesthetic appeal.
Art Deco	Architectural style popular during the 1920s that captured modernist simplification of forms while using machine age materials, such as the Chrysler Building.
Mass Media	Widely circulated and consumed forms of media such as newspapers, magazines and the more recent forms of media of the 1920s, such as the radio and movies.
Radio	Form of mass media that became popular during the 1920s through nationally broadcasted music, news broadcasts, sporting events, soap operas, quiz shows and comedies.
Networks	Mass media companies that originated in radio such as NBC (1924) and CBS(1927) that eventually made the transition to television as well.
Movie Industry	Form of mass media centered in Hollywood that became popular during the 1920s with the rise of “talkies,” film stars such as Greta Garbo and elaborate movie theaters.
Hollywood	Center of the movie industry, which became prominent during the 1920s with the rise of “talkies,” film stars such as Greta Garbo and elaborate movie theaters.
Popular Music	Styles of music that became part of mainstream American culture through mass media, such as jazz during the 1920s.
Phonographs	Early record players that became popular during the 1920s that along with the radio, helped spread new styles of music.
Popular Heroes	Larger-than-life personalities celebrated on the sports page and movie screens that Americans started to idolize and adopt as role models with the rise of mass media.
Aviation	Flying or operating of aircraft, which became more popular in the 1920s as airplane technology improved and created new American heroes such as pilot Charles Lindbergh.
Charles Lindbergh	Celebrated American aviator who became famous for completing a solo nonstop trans-Atlantic flight, but was also a staunch isolationist and member of the America First Committee.
Modernism	Cultural and spiritual movement of the 1920s, in which some Protestants took a critical view of certain passages in the Bible and accepted new concepts, such as Darwin’s theory of evolution.
Fundamentalism	Cultural and spiritual movement of the 1920s, in which some Protestants believed every word in the Bible was true literally and embraced doctrines such as creationism over evolution.
Revivalists	Popular fundamentalist preachers of the 1920s who often utilized the radio to reach national audiences.
Billy Sunday	Popular revivalist and radio evangelist who drew large crowds with his fundamentalist messages and attacks on drinking, gambling and dancing.
Aimee Semple McPherson	Popular revivalist and radio evangelist from Los Angeles who condemned communism and the moral impact of jazz music.
Scopes Trial	Tennessee court case over a state law banning the teaching of evolution in public schools, which technically ended in a victory for fundamentalists, but was viewed as a larger win for modernists.
Clarence Darrow	Famous Chicago lawyer for the defense in the Scopes Trial who ultimately lost the case, but was given credit by the Northern press for discrediting William Jennings Bryan and fundamentalism.
Prohibition	Outlawing the manufacture and sale of alcohol, which temperance leaders achieved at the state level in two-thirds of the states by 1915 and the national level with the 18th Amendment in 1920.
Volstead Act (1919)	Congressional law that gave the national government the authority to enforce Prohibition through the 18th amendment.
Al Capone	Chicago gangster and crime boss known for using extreme violence to corner the market on the illegal and lucrative bootlegging industry during Prohibition.
Organized Crime	Enterprises set up for the purpose of engaging in illegal activities, such as Al Capone and bootlegging during Prohibition.
21st Amendment	Amendment that was ratified during the Great Depression, which repealed the 18th Amendment and ended Prohibition.
Quota Laws	Congressional acts passed in 1921 and 1924 that severely limited immigration to the United States in response to nativist fears and the Red Scare.
Sacco and Vanzetti	Italian immigrants and anarchists who were tried and executed for murder in the 1920s and whose trial showcased nativist attitudes because the evidence against them was circumstantial at best.
Ku Klux Klan	White supremacy group who reemerged during the 1920s and gained political power in the South/Midwest by using extreme tactics and violence to intimidate African Americans and White reformers.
Birth of a Nation	Popular silent film about the Ku Klux Klan during Reconstruction that portrayed them as heroes and partially led to the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan during the 1920s.
African Americans	Group of Americans who were the main targets of the violence of the Ku Klux Klan during the 1920s as part of the Ku Klux Klan’s racist and nativist beliefs.
Foreigners	Group of Americans targeted by the Ku Klux Klan for being “un-American” as part of the Ku Klux Klan’s racist and nativist beliefs.
Suspected Communists	Group of Americans targeted by the Ku Klux Klan for harboring “un-American” political ideology as part of the Ku Klux Klan’s racist and nativist beliefs.
Gertrude Stein	American author who coined the term “lost generation” to describe the leading American authors after WWI, who bitterly condemned the sacrifices of wartime as fraud perpetrated by money interests.
Lost Generation	Term used to describe the leading American authors after WWI, who bitterly condemned the sacrifices of wartime as fraud perpetrated by money interests.
F. Scott Fitzgerald	Lost Generation author known for stories and novels, such as The Great Gatsby, that both glorified and criticized the wild lives of the carefree and prosperous population of the 1920s.
Ernest Hemingway	Lost Generation author known for stories and novels, such as A Farewell to Arms, that reflected the disillusionment and despair facing the generation who fought in WWI.
Sinclair Lewis	Lost Generation author known for stories and novels, such as Main Street, that criticized American capitalism and materialism in the interwar period.
Ezra Pound	Lost Generation and modernist poet whose work reflected the disillusionment facing many people after WWI and often criticized capitalism and materialism in the interwar period.
T. S. Eliot	Lost Generation and modernist poet and literary critic whose work reflected the disillusionment and despair facing the generation who fought in WWI.
Eugene O'Neill	Lost Generation playwright whose work reflected the disillusionment and despair facing the generation who fought in WWI.
Edward Hopper	American painter whose work during the 1920s was inspired by the architecture of American cities to explore loneliness and isolation of urban life.
Regional Artists	Painters such as Grant Wood and Thomas Hart Benton who celebrated the rural people of the 1920s and painted scenes of the heartland of America.
Grant Wood	Regional artist who celebrated the rural people of the 1920s and painted scenes of the heartland of America.
Thomas Hart Benton	Regional artist who celebrated the rural people of the 1920s and painted scenes of the heartland of America.
George Gershwin	American composer and son of Russian-Jewish immigrants who blended jazz and classical music in his symphonic Rhapsody in Blue and the folk opera Porgy and Bess.
Morals	A person or society’s standards of behavior or beliefs concerning what is and is not acceptable for them to do, which started to drastically change during the 1920s.
Sigmund Freud	Austrian psychiatrist who influenced the moral changes of the 1920s through his writings on the role of sexual repression in mental illness.
Margaret Sanger	Women’s rights activist who encouraged women to talk openly about birth control, founded the Birth Control Clinic, and attempted to end poverty and abuse among young women.
Fashion	Style of clothing that is popular, such as the flapper look during the 1920s that involved dresses hemmed at the knee instead of the ankle and bobbed or short cut hair.
High School Education	Higher level of education that became almost universal for students in the United States during the 1920s.
Migration from the South	Part of the Great Migration, many African Americans left the South for Northern cities in search of economic opportunity and to escape the Jim Crow laws of the South.
Harlem Renaissance	Flowering of black culture in New York’s Harlem neighborhood during the 1920s in which African American music, literature and art reflected the unique African American experience.
Countee Cullen	Influential poet, novelist, children's writer and playwright of the Harlem Renaissance who also promoted the work of other African American writers.
Langston Hughes	Influential poet, novelist, playwright, and columnist of the Harlem Renaissance who also became a social activist and civil rights advocate.
James Weldon Johnson	Influential poet and writer of the Harlem Renaissance who also was a major civil rights activist and leader of the NAACP.
Claude McKay	Influential poet and author of the Harlem Renaissance who utilized his unique perspective as a Jamaican-American in his literary works.
Duke Ellington	Influential pianist, composer and band leader of the Harlem Renaissance who helped spread the popularity of jazz through his band’s performances at the Cotton Club in Harlem.
Louis Armstrong	Influential trumpeter and vocalist of the Harlem Renaissance who helped spread the popularity of jazz and partially shifted the focus of jazz from collective improvisation to solo performance.
Bessie Smith	Influential singer of the Harlem Renaissance who earned the nickname “Empress of the Blues” and helped spread the popularity of the blues.
Paul Robeson	Influential singer and actor of the Harlem Renaissance who received great acclaim for his Broadway and film roles.
Marcus Garvey	Jamaican American who advocated for racial pride for African Americans, developed political ideas of Black nationalism, and renewed interest in a back-to-Africa movement.
Back-to-Africa Movement	Idea supported by Marcus Garvey for African Americans to move to Africa to escape racism and Jim Crow laws in the United States
Black Pride	Movement which encourages black people to celebrate black culture and embrace their African heritage.
Warren G. Harding	Republican president who believed in laissez-faire economics and oversaw rapid economic growth in the early 1920s, but whose administration was embroiled in multiple corruption scandals.
Charles Evans Hughes	Well respected lawyer and Supreme Court justice who President Harding appointed to be Secretary of State and who served as chairman of the Washington Conference after WWI.
Andrew Mellon	Pittsburgh industrialist and millionaire who President Harding appointed to be Secretary of the Treasury.
Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act (1922)	Increased Congressional tax on foreign goods passed under the Harding Administration to promote domestic businesses.
Bureau of the Budget	Government entity created under the Harding Administration with procedures for all government expenditures to be placed in a single budget for Congress to review and vote on.
Albert B. Fall	Secretary of the Interior under President Harding who was involved with the Teapot Dome Scandal.
Harry M. Daugherty	Attorney General under President Harding who took bribes for agreeing not to prosecute certain criminal suspects.
Teapot Dome Scandal	Government corruption in the Harding Administration in which Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall accepted bribes for granting oil leases in Wyoming on the cheap to private companies.
Calvin Coolidge	President Harding’s vice president and successor after President Harding died of a heart attack who believed strongly in laissez-faire economics.
Herbert Hoover	Self-made millionaire and Secretary of Commerce under President Harding who became president in 1928 and refused to let the government intervene at the start of the Great Depression.
Alfred E. Smith	Former governor of New York and democratic nominee for president in 1928 who lost to Herbet Hoover because of Republican popularity and a progressive split in the Democratic Party.
Consumer Culture	Influence of materialism and prosperity on society, which was especially apparent in the United States during the 1920s.
Frederick Lewis Allen	Historian and author who argued American society in the 1920s abandoned Progressive reforms for consumerism and conservative republican policies.
Only Yesterday	Book written by historian Frederick Lewis Allen who argued American society in the 1920s abandoned Progressive reforms for consumerism and conservative republican policies.
Business Failures	Companies closing permanently, which results in money and job loss and was a major problem during the Great Depression.
Unemployment	People who want to work, but are unable to secure jobs, which was a major problem during the Great Depression.
Herbert Hoover	Republican president at the beginning of the Great Depression who believed in laissez-faire economics and was criticized for not getting the government involved until near the end of his term.
Black Tuesday	Devastating stock market crash on October 29, 1929 that signaled the start of the Great Depression in the United States.
Dow Jones Index	Stock market benchmark consisting of 30 major companies that economists and investors use to gauge the overall performance of the stock market, which crashed during the Great Depression.
Buying on Margin	Speculative investment strategy of borrowing most of the cost of a stock on the hopes it increases in price, which helped cause the Great Depression.
Uneven Distribution of Income	One of the major causes of the Great Depression, wages for the average American worker rose little during the 1920s when compared to the large increases in corporate profits.
Excessive Use of Credit	Abuse of borrowing money and installment purchases based on the belief the economy would continually improve, which was one of the major causes of the Great Depression.
Overproduction	Companies manufacture more goods than consumers demand, which causes prices to fall and was one of the major causes of the Great Depression.
High Tariffs	Taxes on foreign goods that can help protect domestic manufacturers, but can hurt domestic consumers and international trade, which helped cause the Great Depression.
Federal Reserve	Central banking system of the United States that helps regulate the economy, which some economists blamed for helping cause the Great Depression because of a tight monetary policy.
Bank Failures	Banks running out of money and closing permanently, which resulted in people losing all of their savings and was a major problem during the Great Depression.
Gross National Product (GNP)	Value of all the goods and services produced by a nation in one year, which dropped greatly for the United States during the Great Depression.
Poverty	Socio-economic condition at which a person or community lacks the financial resources and essentials for a minimum standard of living, which was a major problem during the Great Depression.
Homelessness	Socio-economic condition at which a person lacks a fixed, regular and adequate nighttime residence, which was a major problem during the Great Depression.
Stock Market Crash	Rapid and often unanticipated drop in stock prices, one of which occurred on Black Tuesday and signaled the beginning of the Great Depression.
Self-Reliance	Idea that people should provide for themselves through hard work over government aid, which President Hoover used as justification for not providing government aid at first during the Great Depression.
Hawley-Smoot Tariff	Highest tax on foreign goods in American History, which caused many countries to increase taxes on American goods and led to a decline in international trade during the Great Depression.
Debt Moratorium	Proposal by President Hoover for suspending payments of international debts during the Great Depression, which some countries agreed to, but others refused and led to massive loan defaults.
Farm Board	Government entity created under President Hoover during the Great Depression to help stabilize agricultural prices, but lacked the necessary power to handle the overproduction of farm goods.
Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)	Government entity created under President Hoover during the Great Depression to help provide loans to companies and banks, but not private workers.
Bonus March	Thousands of WWI veterans traveled to Washington D.C. to demand promised bonuses, but instead were forcibly and violently removed by the U.S. Army, which sparked national outrage.
Hoovervilles	Nickname given to shantytowns that popped up during the Great Depression, which reflected the general attitude that President Hoover did “too little, too late” to address the Great Depression.
Franklin D. Roosevelt	32nd President of the United States who cruised to victory against Herbert Hoover in the election of 1932 and led the nation through the Great Depression with the New Deal and WWII.
Lame-Duck President	Politician who holds the office of the presidency after the successor has been elected, but not yet taken office, such as President Hoover after the election of 1932.
20th Amendment	Amendment that moved the presidential inauguration to January in order to reduce the lame-duck period.
Eleanor Roosevelt	First Lady and political activist who pushed President Franklin Roosevelt to support women, African Americans and those in need.
New Deal	President Franklin Roosevelt’s domestic program during the Great Depression that utilized Keynesian economics to serve the three R’s; relief, recovery and reform.
Three R’s (Relief, Recovery, Reform)	Pillars of President Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal domestic program that was meant to help pull the United States out of the Great Depression.
Brain Trust	Group of university professors and economic experts that President Franklin Roosevelt turned to for advice on how to handle the Great Depression.
Frances Perkins	President Franklin Roosevelt’s Secretary of Labor and the first woman ever to serve in a president’s cabinet.
Hundred Days	Special session of Congress at the beginning of Franklin Roosevelt’s presidency in which a significant amount of New Deal legislation was passed and New Deal agencies were created.
Bank Holiday	President Franklin Roosevelt’s closure of all banks for four days in order to stop the large amount of bank failures and restore American confidence in the banking system.
Repeal of Prohibition	Campaign promise by President Franklin Roosevelt to repeal the 18th Amendment and allow the manufacture and sale of alcohol, which was accomplished with the 21st Amendment.
Fireside Chats	Radio messages President Franklin Roosevelt broadcasted to the American people in order to promote his New Deal agenda and restore confidence in the American economy.
Roosevelt’s Alphabet Soup	New Deal laws and government organizations passed under President Franklin Roosevelt to help combat the economic strife of the Great Depression.
Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)	New Deal government agency that offered grants of federal money to states that operated soup kitchens and other forms of relief.
Public Works Administration (PWA)	New Deal government agency that allotted money to state and local governments for construction projects and public works.
Harold Ickes	Secretary of the Interior under President Franklin Roosevelt who also oversaw the Public Works Administration.
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)	New Deal government agency that employed young men on environmental projects on federal lands.
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)	New Deal government agency that invested heavily in one of the nation’s poorest regions by building dams, electric power plants and flood/erosion controls.
Emergency Banking Relief Act	New Deal law that authorized the government to examine the finances of banks closed during the bank holiday and reopen those judged to be sound.
Glass-Steagall Act	New Deal law that increased regulation of the banks and limited how banks could invest customers’ money.
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)	New Deal government agency that helped restore confidence in banks by guaranteeing individual bank deposits up to a certain amount.
Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC)	New Deal government agency that provided refinancing of small homes to prevent foreclosures.
Farm Credit Administration	New Deal government agency that provided low-interest loans and mortgages to prevent foreclosures on the property of farmers.
National Recovery Administration (NRA)	New Deal government agency that attempted to guarantee reasonable profits for business and fair wages and hours for workers before being struck down by SCOTUS.
Schechter v. United States	Landmark SCOTUS case that ruled the National Recovery Administration unconstitutional.
Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA)	New Deal government agency that encouraged farmers to reduce production through subsidies, which was ruled unconstitutional by SCOTUS.
Civil Works Administration (CWA)	New Deal government agency that hired laborers for temporary construction projects sponsored by the federal government.
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)	New Deal government agency created to regulate the stock market and protect investors from fraud and insider trading.
Federal Housing Administration (FHA)	New Deal government agency that insured bank loans for building, repairing and purchasing houses, but controversially redlined and excluded African American neighborhoods.
Second New Deal	New round of laws and government agencies created under President Franklin Roosevelt starting in 1935, which predominantly focused on relief and reform.
Harry Hopkins	Director of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) and the Works Progress Administration (WPA) who eventually oversaw the Lend-Lease program.
Works Progress Administration (WPA)	New Deal government agency that became the largest employer in the United States by putting people and artists to work on public works and art projects.
Resettlement Administration (RA)	New Deal government agency that established federal camps for migrant workers in need of decent housing and provided loans to sharecroppers, tenants and small farmers
National Labor Relations (Wagner) Act (1935)	New Deal law that guaranteed a worker’s right to join a union, guaranteed a union’s right to bargain collectively and established the National Labor Relations Board.
Rural Electrification Administration (REA)	New Deal government agency that provided loans for electrical cooperatives to supply power in rural areas.
Social Security Act	New Deal law that created a federal insurance program for the unemployed and disabled along with a retirement program for those over the age of 65, which was paid for through a new tax.
Limited Welfare State	Government that regulates economic activity and aids the poor and unemployed in order to provide economic security for everyone, which is the basis for modern American liberalism.
Modern American Liberalism	Political ideology heavily influenced by President Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal, which involves the government operating as a limited welfare state.
Election of 1936	Presidential campaign between incumbent Franklin Roosevelt and Republican Alf Landon, which marked a political realignment with the New Deal coalition and a massive victory for Roosevelt.
Alf Landon	Republican nominee for the presidency in the election of 1936 who criticized Democrats for spending too much money, but in general accepted most of the New Deal legislation.
New Deal Coalition	Democratic political alliance under President Franklin Roosevelt that included the Solid South, white ethnic groups in cities, Midwestern farmers, labor unions, liberals and African Americans.
Father Charles E. Coughlin	Major critic of the New Deal who called for issuing an inflated currency and nationalizing all banks and was eventually ordered by the Catholic Church to stop his broadcasts.
Francis E. Townsend	Major critic of the New Deal who called for a national retirement system paid for by a 2 percent federal sales tax.
Huey Long	Major critic of the New Deal who proposed a new tax on the wealthy to pay for a “Share Our Wealth” program and was eventually assassinated by a local political rival.
Supreme Court	Highest federal court in the United States with the power to rule actions of the other branches unconstitutional, which happened multiple times with the New Deal such as the NRA and AAA.
Supreme Court Reorganization Plan	President Franklin Roosevelt’s unpopular proposed legislation to create a friendly Supreme Court to the New Deal by expanding the number of justices.
John L. Lewis	President of the United Mine Workers who became the leader of the newly formed Committee of Industrial Organizations (eventually the Congress of Industrial Organizations).
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)	Coalition of industrial unions that broke away from the AFL and focused on organizing unskilled industrial workers.
Sit-Down Strike	Shutdown of a factory that involves workers literally sitting on the factory floor and refusing to work or leave, such as the successful formation of the United Auto Workers Union at General Motors.
Fair Labor Standards Act (1938)	New Deal law that established regulations in interstate commerce such as a minimum wage, standard workweek of 40 hours and child labor restrictions.
Minimum Wage	Lowest legal payment an employer can offer a worker per hour, which was established nationally for interstate commerce by the Fair Labor Standards Act.
Recession, 1937-1938	Economic downturn partially caused by President Franklin Roosevelt trying to reduce government spending that erased much of the economic improvement created during the New Deal.
John Maynard Keynes	British economist who proposed that governments needed to spend well above their tax revenue during times of crisis to initiate economic growth (deficit spending).
Keynesian Economics	Economic theory that governments needed to spend well above their tax revenue during times of crisis to initiate economic growth (deficit spending).
Depression Mentality	Attitude of insecurity and economic concern that greatly affected Americans who lived through the Great Depression, even after the economy rebounded.
Drought	Period of abnormally low rainfall that leads to a shortage of water, such as in the Great Plains during the early 1930s, which helped create the Dust Bowl.
Dust Bowl	Ecological and agricultural disaster in the early 1930s in the Great Plains caused by overfarming and a major drought, which forced many farmers to migrate to California in search of work.
Okies	Thousands of farmers from Oklahoma who migrated to California in the early 1930s in search of work after the Dust Bowl made farming virtually impossible in the Great Plains.
John Steinbeck	Novelist and author of The Grapes of Wrath, a novel which focused on the economic heartbreak and hardships facing Okies as a result of the Dust Bowl.
The Grapes of Wrath	Novel written by John Steinbeck which focused on the economic heartbreak and hardships facing Okies as a result of the Dust Bowl.
Marian Anderson	Distinguished African American singer who was denied use of Constitution Hall, but secured the Lincoln Memorial as a new venue with help from Elenor Roosevelt and Harold Ickes.
Mary McLeod Bethune	Civil rights activist and educator who became a direct advisor to President Franklin Roosevelt and the informal leader of the “Black Cabinet.”
Fair Employment Practices Committee	Government entity created by an executive order from President Franklin Roosevelt that assisted minorities in gaining jobs in defense industries.
A. Philip Randolph	Civil rights and labor activist who convinced President Franklin Roosevelt to create the Fair Employment Practices Committee after threatening a worker march on Washington D.C.
Indian Reorganization Act (Wheeler-Howard Act) (1934)	New Deal law that repealed the Dawes Act, returned former reservation lands to tribal control and promoted the preservation of Native American culture.
Disarmament	Process of reducing a country’s supply and power of weapons, such as many of the international treaties required after WWI.
Washington Conference	International diplomatic meeting between major world powers in 1921 that resulted in three major treaties aimed at disarmament and reducing tension in the Pacific.
Five-Power Treaty	International agreement made at the Washington Conference between the countries with the largest navies to reduce the number of battleships and reduce tensions in the Pacific.
Four-Power Treaty	International agreement made at the Washington Conference between the United States, France, Great Britain and Japan to respect one another’s territory in the Pacific.
Nine-Power Treaty	International agreement made between the nine countries in attendance at the Washington Conference to respect the Open Door Policy by guaranteeing the territorial integrity of China.
Kellogg-Briand Pact	International agreement made between most of the countries of the world that renounced the aggressive use of force to achieve national ends, but lacked an enforcement mechanism.
War Debts	Money owed to another country that was borrowed in order to fund military operations during conflict, which was a major issue for many European countries after WWI.
War Reparations	Payments made after a military conflict from one side to the other to cover damages or injury inflicted during the conflict, such as the large payments Germany was required to make after WWI.
Dawes Plan	Scheme created by an American banker for the United States to help Germany fulfill its war reparations obligations from WWI in order to help the Allies fulfill their debt obligations to the United States.
Japanese Aggression in Manchuria	Greatest threat to world peace in the early 1930s, Japan defied both the Open Door Policy and the League of Nations by invading a northeastern region of China.
Stimson Doctrine	Diplomatic decree by the United States that as a signer of the Nine-Powers Treaty, the United States would refuse to recognize any regime like “Manchukuo” that had been established by force.
Good-Neighbor Policy	President Franklin Roosevelt’s diplomatic approach to Latin American countries that involved pivoting from interventionism to mutual friendly relations.
Pan-American Conferences	Diplomatic meetings between nations of the Western Hemisphere and where President Franklin Roosevelt pledged to stop intervening in the internal affairs of Latin American countries.
Recognition of the Soviet Union	President Franklin Roosevelt granted diplomatic legitimacy to the Communist regime in Russia for the first time in order to increase trade and boost the American economy.
Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934)	Congressional law passed under President Franklin Roosevelt that laid the foundation for the eventual independence of the Philippines and removal of U.S. troops.
Reciprocal Trade Agreements	International economic understandings that President Franklin Roosevelt used to lower tariffs and promote international trade in order to boost the American economy.
Axis Powers	Military alliance formed in 1940 between Germany, Italy and Japan.
Benito Mussolini	Fascist dictator of Italy who formed a military alliance with Germany and Japan to form the Axis Powers in WWII.
Fascist Party	Italian political party led by Benito Mussolini and made up of dissatisfied war veterans, extreme nationalists and anti-communists.
Fascism	Extreme political ideology in which citizens glorify their nation and their race through uniformity and aggressive shows of force against dissenters and potential foreign opposition.
Nazi Party	Fascist German political party led by Adolf Hitler that rose to prominence in the 1920s in reaction to the deplorable economic conditions after WWI and nation resentment over the Treaty of Versailles.
Adolf Hitler	Fascist dictator of Germany and leader of the Nazi Party who formed a military alliance with Italy and Japan to form the Axis Powers in WWII and promoted genocide against multiple groups.
Isolationism	Policy of remaining apart from the affairs or interests of other groups, especially the political affairs of other countries, which the United States followed during the interwar period.
Gerald Nye	Senator of North Dakota who led an investigative committee and concluded that U.S. entry into WWI was a mistake driven by the greed of bankers and arms manufacturers.
Neutrality Acts	Series of Congressional laws aimed at keeping the United States neutral when WWII broke out by regulating and restricting trade with belligerent nations.
Spanish Civil War	Spanish internal struggle between Fascists led by General Francisco Franco and supporters of republicanism known as Loyalists, which ended in a Fascist victory.
Francisco Franco	Fascist general in Spain who won the Spanish Civil War and established a military dictatorship.
America First Committee	Isolationist propaganda organization supported by Charles Lindbergh that was created in response to President Franklin Roosevelt’s perceived pro-British policies
Charles Lindbergh	Aviation hero who strongly believed in American isolationism and joined the America First Committee to try and keep the United States out of WWII.
Ethiopia (1935)	Italian invasion of an African country to prove fascism’s military might, which the League of Nations and the United States opposed, but did nothing to stop.
Rhineland (1936)	Region in western Germany that was supposed to remain demilitarized according to the Treaty of Versailles, but was remilitarized by Hitler when he sent in German troops.
China (1937)	Full-scale war broke out when Japan invaded this Asian country, which included the sinking of a U.S. gunboat, but the United States quickly accepted Japan’s apology for the sinking.
Sudetenland (1938)	Strip of land in Czechoslovakia where most people were German-speaking, which Hitler insisted that Germany had a right to claim as German territory.
Munich (1938)	Meeting between Great Britain, France and Germany that resulted in Germany being allowed to take the Sudetenland in exchange for promises of peace, which became a policy known as appeasement.
Appeasement	Policy of conceding to an aggressive power in order to avoid conflict, such as Great Britain and France allowing Germany to take the Sudetenland unopposed in exchange for promises of peace.
Quarantine Speech	President Franklin Roosevelt’s extremely unpopular address in 1937 in which he proposed democracies work together to contain Fascist aggressors.
Poland (1939)	German and Soviet invasion of a European country that caused Great Britain and France to declare war on Germany, which many historians view as the official start of WWII.
Blitzkrieg	German term meaning lightning war, which has been applied to Germany’s swift invasion of Poland because of its overwhelming use of air power and fast-moving tanks.
Cash and Carry	Less restrictive Neutrality Act in which belligerents could buy U.S. arms if they used their own ships and paid cash, which was technically neutral, but favored the naval dominance of the British.
Selective Training and Service Act (1940)	Congressional law passed under President Franklin Roosevelt that created a peacetime compulsory draft in preparation for a potential United States entry into WWII.
Destroyers-for Bases Deal	Agreement made in 1940 in which the British received 50 older U.S. destroyers in exchange for the United States being able to build military bases on British islands in the Caribbean.
Third Term (FDR)	President Franklin Roosevelt ran for and won a record third term as president, which violated the two term precedent established by George Washington.
Wendell Willkie	Republican nominee for the presidency in the election of 1940 who criticized President Franklin Roosevelt for trying to violate the two term precedent established by George Washington.
Four Freedoms Speech	President Franklin Roosevelt’s address in 1941 in which he justified greater support for the British by arguing the United States needed to help other nations defend four freedoms.
Lend-Lease Act (1941)	Congressional law passed under President Franklin Roosevelt that allowed the British to purchase war supplies on credit, which was extremely unpopular among isolationists.
Atlantic Charter	Peace plan for the world created by President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in 1941, which included principles such as self-determination and free trade.
Pearl Harbor	Major U.S. military port in Hawaii that the Japanese attacked without warning on December 7, 1941 in an effort to destroy the U.S. Pacific Fleet, which officially drew the United States into WWII.
War Production Board (WPB)	Government entity created in 1942 to manage war industries during WWII, which saw the government take greater control of the economy.
Office of Price Administration (OPA)	Government entity created during WWII that regulated almost every aspect of civilians’ lives by rationing major commodities and freezing prices, wages and rents.
Federal Spending	Money the government spends on domestic and foreign programs, which skyrocketed in the United States during WWII.
Accumulated Debt	Total amount of money the government owes to its creditors, which skyrocketed in the United States during WWII.
War Business and Industry	Companies that benefit from domestic and foreign government spending during war, such as many American companies during WWII, which helped end the Great Depression.
War Research and Development	Spending on science typically increases during times of conflict in order to discover and improve technologies to defeat the enemy, such as the Manhattan Project during WWII.
Manhattan Project	Top secret military research project during WWII which led to the creation of the first atomic weapons.
Office of War Information	Government propaganda agency created during WWII that controlled military news shared with the public and created media to garner support for the war effort.
“the Good War”	Alternative term used to describe WWII that reflects the overall unity behind the war’s democratic ideals and triumph over fascism.
Civil Rights	Rights of citizens to political and social freedom and equality, which many African Americans advocated for during WWII as part of the Double V campaign.
“Double V”	Civil Rights campaign that many African Americans participated in that involved achieving victory abroad against fascism and victory of equality at home.
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)	Civil rights organization formed in 1942 that was created to work more militantly for African Americans rights.
Executive Order 8802	President Franklin Roosevelt’s executive order to prohibit discrimination in government and in businesses that received federal contracts.
Smith v. Allwright	Landmark SCOTUS case that ruled it was unconstitutional to deny membership in political parties to African Americans as a way of excluding them from voting in primaries.
Braceros	Mexican farmworkers who under a 1942 international agreement were temporarily allowed to enter the United States during the harvest season without going through formal immigration procedures.
Korematsu v. U.S.	Landmark SCOTUS case that controversially upheld the government’s internment policy as justified during wartime.
Rosie the Riveter	Media icon of WWII used to encourage women to take defense industry jobs and has since become a symbol of female empowerment.
Wartime Solidarity	New sense of camaraderie between various racial, ethnic and religious groups in the United States as they came together to support the war effort in WWII.
Wartime Migrations	Movement of different racial, ethnic and religious groups in the United States to fill defense industry jobs, which helped soften regional differences and spread awareness of discrimination.
Battle of the Atlantic	Protracted naval conflict over control of shipping lanes in the Atlantic Ocean between German submarines and the navies of the Allies.
Strategic Bombing	Devastating air raids conducted on tactical targets, which blurred the lines between military and civilian targets during WWII as the Axis Powers and the Allies targeted population centers.
Dwight Eisenhower	U.S. general and the Supreme Commander of Allied Forces during WWII who oversaw the Allied invasion of Europe and eventual victory.
D-Day	Successful, but violent invasion of Nazi controlled Europe by the Allies at Normandy, which is still the largest amphibious assault in history.
Holocaust	Nazi’s program of genocide against the Jews and other groups during WWII that resulted in the systematic murder of 6 million Jewish civilians and several million non-Jews.
Battle of Midway	Turning point in the Pacific Theatre of WWII because the United States stopped the Japanese advance and destroyed four Japanese aircraft carriers and 300 planes.
Island Hopping	U.S. military strategy in the Pacific Theatre of WWII to only invade strategically important islands that would put the United States within striking distance of Japan.
Douglas MacArthur	U.S. general and commander of army units in the Southern Pacific who was driven from the Philippines by the Japanese and famously returned in 1944.
Battle of Leyte Gulf	Major naval battle that allowed the United States to reoccupy the Philippines, resulted in the virtual destruction of the Japanese navy and marked the first use of kamikaze pilots by the Japanese.
Kamikaze	Japanese pilots who conducted suicide attacks on U.S. ships during WWII to devastating effects.
Battle of Iwo Jima	Major battle of the Pacific Theatre of WWII that involved fierce fighting and high casualty rates, but put U.S. bombers in range of the Japanese mainland for the first time.
Battle of Okinawa	Major battle of the Pacific Theatre of WWII on a historically Japanese island that involved fierce fighting and high casualty rates, which caused concerns for an invasion of the Japanese mainland.
J. Robert Oppenheimer	Head scientist of the Manhattan Project, which created the first atomic bombs and helped lead to an American victory in the Pacific Theatre of WWII.
Atomic Bomb	Devastatingly powerful nuclear weapons that were created for the first time through the Manhattan Project and used against the Japanese at Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Hiroshima	First major Japanese city that the United States dropped an atom bomb on during WWII, which resulted in massive destruction in the short and long term.
Nagasaki	Second major Japanese city that the United States dropped an atom bomb on during WWII, which resulted in massive destruction in the short and long term.
Harry S. Truman	Vice president to President Franklin Roosevelt during his last term who became president when he passed, decided to use atomic bombs against the Japanese and saw the start of the Cold War.
Big Three	Leaders of the major powers of the Allies during WWII which included U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin.
Casablanca	Conference of the Big Three in 1943 that Stalin did not attend where President Franklin Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to invade Sicily and demand unconditional surrender from the Axis powers.
Unconditional Surrender	Surrender in which no guarantees are given to the defeated party, which is the type of surrender the Allies demanded from the Axis powers in WWII.
Tehran	Conference of the Big Three in 1943 where the Allies agreed that the British and Americans would invade France in 1944 and that the Soviets would invade Germany and eventually fight Japan.
Yalta	Conference of the Big Three in 1945 where the Allies agreed on the future for Germany and Eastern European countries, Soviet participation in the war against Japan and the foundation for the United Nations.
Free Elections	Voting for political leaders that are supposed to be open and fair, which was the plan for Eastern European countries following WWII, but the Soviets broke the agreement.
Potsdam	Conference between the United States led by President Truman, the British led by Prime Minister Clement Attlee and Soviet Premier Stalin in 1945 which started to see the breakdown of the Grand Alliance.
United Nations	International diplomatic organization based on the League of Nations created at the end of WWII to help prevent future conflicts.
Atomic Weapons	Nuclear bombs created through the Manhattan Project that President Truman decided to use against the Japanese in WWII, which helped spark an arms race with the Soviets during the Cold War.

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