Bitter presidential election between Federalist John Adams and Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson, which resulted in the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties.

President Jefferson approved the buying of the Louisiana Territory from the French, which doubled the size of the United States and opened the West to American settlement.

Strict Interpretation

Belief held predominately by Democratic-Republicans that the federal government had only the powers literally written in the Constitution and nothing more.

Belief held predominantly by Federalists that the federal government had implied powers beyond what was written in the Constitution due to the Elastic Clause.

Leaders of a scientific exploration of the Louisiana Territory commissioned by the federal government that resulted in greater knowledge of the West and stronger claims to the Oregon Territory.

Vice president to Jefferson who almost won the presidency in 1804, but lost when Alexander Hamilton and the Federalists supported Jefferson, which resulted in Burr later killing Hamilton in a duel.

Influential Supreme Court Chief Justice who believed strongly in a loose interpretation of the Constitution and greatly expanded the powers of the Supreme Court and the federal government.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Landmark SCOTUS case under the Marshall Court over Adam’s midnight appointments of judges, which resulted in the establishment of the Supreme Court’s power of judicial review.

Implied power established in Marbury v. Madison, in which the Supreme Court has the authority to overrule actions of the other two branches of the federal government as unconstitutional.

Fletcher v. Peck (1810)

Landmark SCOTUS case under the Marshall Court, which ruled states could not pass laws invalidating contracts and was the first time the Supreme Court ruled a state law unconstitutional.

Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)

Landmark SCOTUS case under the Marshall Court, which ruled contracts for private corporations could not be altered by a state and declared a state law unconstitutional.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Landmark SCOTUS case under the Marshall Court over the National Bank, which resulted in the Supreme Court enforcing the Supremacy Clause and endorsing implied powers.

Powers of the federal government not explicitly written in the Constitution, but exist due to the Elastic Clause (also known as the Necessary and Proper Clause).

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

Landmark SCOTUS case under the Marshall Court over navigation rights, with the Supreme Court upholding the federal government’s broad authority to regulate interstate commerce.

Time period of James Monroe’s presidency after the War of 1812 that was marked by spirit of nationalism, optimism and good will along with an improving economy.

President during the Era of Good Feelings, his time in office was characterized by a one-party political system, increasing economic opportunity, expansion westward, and the Monroe Doctrine.

Focus on supporting the economic health of the country through actions such as subsidizing internal improvements (infrastructure) and protecting domestic industry from foreign competitors.

First protective tariff levied in the United States, this tariff was levied to protect American factories that had developed during the War of 1812 from cheaper British goods.

Tax on imported goods levied in order to shield domestic manufacturers from foreign competition and promote domestic consumption of goods.

Representative from Kentucky that promoted the idea of the American System and was also known as the Great Compromiser due to his efforts to try and keep the country from falling to sectionalism.

Plan created by Representative Henry Clay for advancing the nation’s economy through protective tariffs, the recreation of a national bank and subsidizing internal improvements.

Second Bank of the United States

Part of Representative Henry Clay’s American System, this was the second national bank after the first one supported by Alexander Hamilton was allowed to expire in 1811.

First major economic downturn since the ratification of the Constitution, it was partially caused by the Second Bank of the United States tightening credit to control inflation and shook nationalistic beliefs.

Added to the bill for Missouri’s admission to the Union, it called for the gradual emancipation of slaves in Missouri, which infuriated the Southern states and was defeated in the Senate.

Missouri Compromise (1820)

Enacted proposal by Henry Clay to admit Missouri as a slave state, admit Maine as a free state and prohibit slavery in future states above the 36°30′ latitude line.

Regions of the country developing loyalty to the culture of their region over loyalty to the country as a whole.

Militaristic leader of France who sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States and sparked the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, which President Jefferson tried to stay out of through neutrality.

Sailors from Tripoli who raided U.S. merchant ships, which caused President Jefferson to send naval ships to the Mediterranean in order to protect American trade vessels.

Policy of staying out of international conflicts by refusing to pick a side established by President Washington and continued by many other presidents such as Thomas Jefferson.

Chesapeake- Leopard Affair

British warship fired on a U.S. warship and killed three Americans and impressed four others, which sparked American anger and almost started a war.

Law passed by Congress and President Jefferson that prohibited all American merchant ships from sailing to foreign ports in order to pressure the British, but hurt the American economy.

Fourth president of the United States who started as a Federalist, but later joined the Democratic-Republicans and steered the United States through the War of 1812.

Nonintercourse Act (1809)

Attempt by President Madison to repeal the disastrous Embargo Act, but also maintain neutrality by reopening trade with all nations except the British and the French.

Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810)

Law passed by Congress restoring trade with the British and French, but provided that if either agreed to respect U.S. neutrality then the United States would prohibit trade with the other.

Conflict between the United States and British over free navigation of the seas, trade and disputes over the western frontier that essentially ended in a stalemate.

Brother of the Prophet and warrior leader of the Shawnee that attempted to build a confederacy of Native American tribes east of the Mississippi River, but failed after the devastating loss at Tippecanoe.

Brother of Tecumseh and spiritual leader of the Shawnee that attempted to build a confederacy of Native American tribes east of the Mississippi River, but failed after the devastating loss at Tippecanoe.

William Henry Harrison

Governor of the Indiana Territory and general who led his forces in destroying the Shawnee headquarters at the Battle of Tippecanoe and later became president.

Battle in which General William Henry Harrison destroyed the Shawnee headquarters and ruined Tecumseh’s attempts to form a Native American confederacy.

Congressional representatives who supported going to war against Great Britain in order to defend American honor, gain Canada and destroy Native American resistance on the frontier.

Young Democratic-Republican representative to Congress from the frontier state of Kentucky that was labeled a war hawk for supporting going to war with Great Britain.

Democratic-Republican representative to Congress from South Carolina that was labeled a war hawk for supporting going to war with Great Britain.

Name given to Democratic-Republicans who opposed going to war with Great Britain on the grounds it violated classic Democratic-Republican values of limited federal power and maintenance of peace.

British violation of American neutrality by capturing American ships and forcing American sailors into service with the British navy.

Nickname given to the U.S. warship Constitution which raised American morale by defeating and sinking a British ship off the coast of Nova Scotia.

Important naval military engagement between American and British ships in 1813 on Lake Erie that resulted in a British defeat at the hands of American Captain Oliver Hazard Perry.

American captain who led American naval forces to victory against the British at the Battle of Lake Erie.

Military engagement between the United States led by General William Henry Harrison and Native Americans led by Tecumseh, which ended in an American victory and Tecumseh’s death.

Leader of American naval forces against the British at the successful Battle of Lake Champlain in 1814, which stopped the British advance on New York and New England.

Battle of Lake Champlain

Important naval military engagement between American and British ships in 1814, which ended in an American victory and stopped the British advance on New York and New England.

Author of the words to the “Star-Spangled Banner,” which he wrote after he witnessed Fort McHenry withstand a long British bombardment and not surrender.

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Unit 4

All Vocabulary

Term	Definition
Revolution of 1800	Bitter presidential election between Federalist John Adams and Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson, which resulted in the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties.
Louisiana Purchase	President Jefferson approved the buying of the Louisiana Territory from the French, which doubled the size of the United States and opened the West to American settlement.
Strict Interpretation	Belief held predominately by Democratic-Republicans that the federal government had only the powers literally written in the Constitution and nothing more.
Loose Interpretation	Belief held predominantly by Federalists that the federal government had implied powers beyond what was written in the Constitution due to the Elastic Clause.
Lewis and Clark	Leaders of a scientific exploration of the Louisiana Territory commissioned by the federal government that resulted in greater knowledge of the West and stronger claims to the Oregon Territory.
Aaron Burr	Vice president to Jefferson who almost won the presidency in 1804, but lost when Alexander Hamilton and the Federalists supported Jefferson, which resulted in Burr later killing Hamilton in a duel.
John Marshall	Influential Supreme Court Chief Justice who believed strongly in a loose interpretation of the Constitution and greatly expanded the powers of the Supreme Court and the federal government.
Marbury v. Madison (1803)	Landmark SCOTUS case under the Marshall Court over Adam’s midnight appointments of judges, which resulted in the establishment of the Supreme Court’s power of judicial review.
Judicial Review	Implied power established in Marbury v. Madison, in which the Supreme Court has the authority to overrule actions of the other two branches of the federal government as unconstitutional.
Fletcher v. Peck (1810)	Landmark SCOTUS case under the Marshall Court, which ruled states could not pass laws invalidating contracts and was the first time the Supreme Court ruled a state law unconstitutional.
Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)	Landmark SCOTUS case under the Marshall Court, which ruled contracts for private corporations could not be altered by a state and declared a state law unconstitutional.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)	Landmark SCOTUS case under the Marshall Court over the National Bank, which resulted in the Supreme Court enforcing the Supremacy Clause and endorsing implied powers.
Implied Powers	Powers of the federal government not explicitly written in the Constitution, but exist due to the Elastic Clause (also known as the Necessary and Proper Clause).
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)	Landmark SCOTUS case under the Marshall Court over navigation rights, with the Supreme Court upholding the federal government’s broad authority to regulate interstate commerce.
Era of Good Feelings	Time period of James Monroe’s presidency after the War of 1812 that was marked by spirit of nationalism, optimism and good will along with an improving economy.
James Monroe	President during the Era of Good Feelings, his time in office was characterized by a one-party political system, increasing economic opportunity, expansion westward, and the Monroe Doctrine.
Economic Nationalism	Focus on supporting the economic health of the country through actions such as subsidizing internal improvements (infrastructure) and protecting domestic industry from foreign competitors.
Tariff of 1816	First protective tariff levied in the United States, this tariff was levied to protect American factories that had developed during the War of 1812 from cheaper British goods.
Protective Tariff	Tax on imported goods levied in order to shield domestic manufacturers from foreign competition and promote domestic consumption of goods.
Henry Clay	Representative from Kentucky that promoted the idea of the American System and was also known as the Great Compromiser due to his efforts to try and keep the country from falling to sectionalism.
American System	Plan created by Representative Henry Clay for advancing the nation’s economy through protective tariffs, the recreation of a national bank and subsidizing internal improvements.
Second Bank of the United States	Part of Representative Henry Clay’s American System, this was the second national bank after the first one supported by Alexander Hamilton was allowed to expire in 1811.
Panic of 1819	First major economic downturn since the ratification of the Constitution, it was partially caused by the Second Bank of the United States tightening credit to control inflation and shook nationalistic beliefs.
Tallmadge Amendment	Added to the bill for Missouri’s admission to the Union, it called for the gradual emancipation of slaves in Missouri, which infuriated the Southern states and was defeated in the Senate.
Missouri Compromise (1820)	Enacted proposal by Henry Clay to admit Missouri as a slave state, admit Maine as a free state and prohibit slavery in future states above the 36°30′ latitude line.
Sectionalism	Regions of the country developing loyalty to the culture of their region over loyalty to the country as a whole.
Napoleon Bonaparte	Militaristic leader of France who sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States and sparked the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, which President Jefferson tried to stay out of through neutrality.
Barbary Pirates	Sailors from Tripoli who raided U.S. merchant ships, which caused President Jefferson to send naval ships to the Mediterranean in order to protect American trade vessels.
Neutrality	Policy of staying out of international conflicts by refusing to pick a side established by President Washington and continued by many other presidents such as Thomas Jefferson.
Chesapeake- Leopard Affair	British warship fired on a U.S. warship and killed three Americans and impressed four others, which sparked American anger and almost started a war.
Embargo Act (1807)	Law passed by Congress and President Jefferson that prohibited all American merchant ships from sailing to foreign ports in order to pressure the British, but hurt the American economy.
James Madison	Fourth president of the United States who started as a Federalist, but later joined the Democratic-Republicans and steered the United States through the War of 1812.
Nonintercourse Act (1809)	Attempt by President Madison to repeal the disastrous Embargo Act, but also maintain neutrality by reopening trade with all nations except the British and the French.
Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810)	Law passed by Congress restoring trade with the British and French, but provided that if either agreed to respect U.S. neutrality then the United States would prohibit trade with the other.
War of 1812	Conflict between the United States and British over free navigation of the seas, trade and disputes over the western frontier that essentially ended in a stalemate.
Tecumseh	Brother of the Prophet and warrior leader of the Shawnee that attempted to build a confederacy of Native American tribes east of the Mississippi River, but failed after the devastating loss at Tippecanoe.
The Prophet	Brother of Tecumseh and spiritual leader of the Shawnee that attempted to build a confederacy of Native American tribes east of the Mississippi River, but failed after the devastating loss at Tippecanoe.
William Henry Harrison	Governor of the Indiana Territory and general who led his forces in destroying the Shawnee headquarters at the Battle of Tippecanoe and later became president.
Battle of Tippecanoe	Battle in which General William Henry Harrison destroyed the Shawnee headquarters and ruined Tecumseh’s attempts to form a Native American confederacy.
War Hawks	Congressional representatives who supported going to war against Great Britain in order to defend American honor, gain Canada and destroy Native American resistance on the frontier.
Henry Clay	Young Democratic-Republican representative to Congress from the frontier state of Kentucky that was labeled a war hawk for supporting going to war with Great Britain.
John C. Calhoun	Democratic-Republican representative to Congress from South Carolina that was labeled a war hawk for supporting going to war with Great Britain.
Quids	Name given to Democratic-Republicans who opposed going to war with Great Britain on the grounds it violated classic Democratic-Republican values of limited federal power and maintenance of peace.
Impressment	British violation of American neutrality by capturing American ships and forcing American sailors into service with the British navy.
Old Ironsides	Nickname given to the U.S. warship Constitution which raised American morale by defeating and sinking a British ship off the coast of Nova Scotia.
Battle of Lake Erie	Important naval military engagement between American and British ships in 1813 on Lake Erie that resulted in a British defeat at the hands of American Captain Oliver Hazard Perry.
Oliver Hazard Perry	American captain who led American naval forces to victory against the British at the Battle of Lake Erie.
Battle of the Thames	Military engagement between the United States led by General William Henry Harrison and Native Americans led by Tecumseh, which ended in an American victory and Tecumseh’s death.
Thomas Macdonough	Leader of American naval forces against the British at the successful Battle of Lake Champlain in 1814, which stopped the British advance on New York and New England.
Battle of Lake Champlain	Important naval military engagement between American and British ships in 1814, which ended in an American victory and stopped the British advance on New York and New England.
Francis Scott Key	Author of the words to the “Star-Spangled Banner,” which he wrote after he witnessed Fort McHenry withstand a long British bombardment and not surrender.
“Star-Spangled Banner”	Poem written by Francis Scott Key after he witnessed Fort McHenry withstand a long British bombardment and not surrender, which was eventually turned into the national anthem.
Andrew Jackson	American general who won the Battle of Horseshoe Bend and Battle of New Orleans and went on to become the 7th president of the United States.
Battle of Horseshoe Bend	Military engagement between the United States led by General Andrew Jackson and the British allied Creek Nation that ended in American victory and opened Alabama to American settlers.
Creek Nation	A powerful Native American tribe from the Southern United States that was defeated at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend after allying with the British during the War of 1812.
Battle of New Orleans	Military engagement between the United States led by General Andrew Jackson and the British that ended in American victory, but technically happened after the War of 1812 was over.
Treaty of Ghent (1814)	Peace treaty between the United States and Great Britain that ended the War of 1812 in essentially a stalemate with almost everything returning to the status quo before the war.
Hartford Convention	Special meeting of Federalists predominately from New England who discussed potentially seceding from the Union and after news broke of the meeting the Federalist Party fell apart.
Stephen Decatur	American naval commander sent by President Madison to fully deal with the Barbary pirates and allow American ships free use of the Mediterranean Sea.
Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817)	Negotiated arrangement between the United States and Great Britain under President Monroe to strictly limit naval armament on the Great Lakes that eventually extended to forts as well.
Treaty of 1818	Treaty between the United States and Great Britain that provided for shared fishing rights of Newfoundland and settled various border disputes, which improved relations between the two countries.
Adams-Onís Treaty (1819)	Treaty between the United States and Spain that resulted in the American purchase of Florida from Spain for five million dollars.
Monroe Doctrine (1823)	United States foreign policy issued by President Monroe, but created by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams that declared the western hemisphere off limits to further European colonization.
Market Revolution	Radical change in the American economy caused by the Industrial, Transportation and Agricultural Revolutions that resulted in increased trade between producer and consumer and regions.
Old Northwest	Territory ceded to the national government from the original 13 states that eventually became the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota.
John Deere	Inventor of the steel plow, which greatly increased the efficiency of planting crops and contributed to the Agricultural Revolution.
Cyrus McCormick	Inventor of the mechanical reaper, which greatly increased the efficiency of harvesting crops and contributed to the Agricultural Revolution.
Lancaster Turnpike	Road built in Pennsylvania in the 1790s that connected Philadelphia to the agricultural western part of the state and sparked the construction of more roads and the Transportation Revolution.
Cumberland Road (National Road)	First paved interstate highway that connected Maryland to Illinois and is an example of the federal government supporting internal improvements as part of the American System.
Erie Canal	Waterway constructed in New York State in 1825 that linked the economies of western farms and eastern cities, which stimulated economic growth in both regions as part of the Transportation Revolution.
Robert Fulton	Developer of the Clermont, the first steamboat to successfully travel up the Hudson River in 1807, which sparked the growth of steam-powered travel as part of the Transportation Revolution.
Steamboats	Boats powered by steam engines that made travel down and more importantly upstream faster and cheaper, which increased trade between regions and stimulated economic growth.
Railroads	Fast and reliable transportation networks of tracks and locomotives that greatly improved the economic connection between western farmers and eastern cities as part of the Transportation Revolution.
Telegraph	Machine invented by Samuel Morse that allowed people to communicate across great distances almost instantaneously through Morse Code and resulted in greater integration of the East and West.
Eli Whitney	Inventor of the cotton gin and developer of interchangeable parts, which allowed for the mass production of manufactured goods.
Interchangeable Parts	System developed by Eli Whitney of identical components that can be assembled to make a final product that formed the basis for mass production methods in northern factories.
Corporations	Companies owned by shareholders that can sell stock to raise large amounts of funds to invest in capital such as factories and machinery.
Samuel Slater	British immigrant who smuggled factory designs to the United States and opened the first American textile mill in 1791, which helped spark the Industrial Revolution.
Textile Mills	Factories that produce cloth, which made up some of the first factories in the United States and required many workers and were constructed predominantly in the North and near bodies of water.
Lowell Factory System	Labor system pioneered by Francis Cabot Lowell that involved recruiting young farm women who were cheaper to hire to work in textile mills and housing them in company dormitories.
Unions	Labor organizations formed in response to industrialization that fought for better pay and working conditions, but encountered obstacles such as cheap immigrant labor and unfriendly government regulations.
Cotton Gin	Device invented by Eli Whitney, which greatly reduced the time and labor involved in separating cotton from the seeds and resulted in cotton becoming profitable and increased demand for slave labor.
Urban Life	Lifestyle of the North’s growing population of people living in cities, who were attracted by new industrial employment opportunities, but faced issues such as crowded housing, crime and poor sanitation.
Industrial Revolution	Change from an agricultural to an industrial society in the United States that was caused by new inventions, processes and machinery.
New Cities	Expanding urban centers at key transportation points in the growing West of the United States such as Buffalo, Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Detroit and St. Louis.
Unions	Labor organizations formed in response to industrialization that fought for better pay and working conditions, but encountered obstacles such as cheap immigrant labor and unfriendly government regulations.
Commonwealth v. Hunt	Massachusetts Supreme Court Case that established the legal right of unions to negotiate labor contracts with employers that greatly impacted how other states viewed and treated unions.
Ten-Hour Workday	Notable achievement of early unions mostly in the North to reduce the number of mandated work hours for employees.
Common Man	Idea of the everyday, working class man that was being ignored by the wealthy elite of the North, which was promoted by politicians such as Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson.
Universal White Male Suffrage	Government system that allowed all White males to vote, regardless of socioeconomic status, which started in the western states, but was soon adopted throughout the country.
Party Nominating Conventions	More democratic system involving meetings of party politicians and voters that replaced King Caucus to nominate party candidates to run for office.
King Caucus	System that allowed party leaders to hold closed meetings and decide who to nominate for office with no input from voters, but ended with westward expansion decentralizing existing political parties.
Anti-Masonic Party	First political party to hold a more democratic party nominating convention instead of utilizing the more restrictive King Caucus.
Popular Elections of Electors	Government system that allowed the people rather than state legislatures to choose a state’s slate of presidential electors.
Workingmen’s Party	Political party that tried to unite artisans and skilled laborers into a political organization.
Popular Campaigning	Candidates for government office directly appealing to the interests and prejudices of the voters instead of government elites that could lead to personal attacks rather than focusing on the issues.
Spoils System	Practice of appointing people to government jobs based on party loyalty rather than on merit or qualifications, which was used heavily by Andrew Jackson.
Rotation in Office	Practice of limiting an appointed government worker to one term and replacing them with another party loyal worker, which was used heavily by Andrew Jackson.
Andrew Jackson	War hero turned politician who treated Native Americans terribly, championed the idea of the common man and expanded the powers of the presidency as the 7th president.
John Quincy Adams	Politician and diplomat from Massachusetts who won the controversial presidential election of 1824 and favored the American System, but faced steep opposition from an unfriendly Congress.
Henry Clay	Politician from Kentucky who came in fourth in the popular vote of the presidential election of 1824, but helped secure John Quincy Adams victory and was later appointed Secretary of State.
Corrupt Bargain	Claim made by Andrew Jackson and his supporters that Henry Clay used his position as Speaker of the House to get John Quincy Adams elected in exchange for being appointed Secretary of State.
Revolution of 1828	Rematch between John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson for the presidency that was known for the brutal mudslinging tactics used by both campaigns that resulted in a Jackson victory.
The Frontier	Name for the western edge of the United States that was characterized for being rough and not as civilized as the eastern part of the country, but was growing rapidly in population and political power.
Role of the President	Question of the authority, powers and duties of the highest government office in relation to many different aspects and entities including the people, the economy, Congress and the military.
“Kitchen Cabinet”	President Jackson’s closest advisors made up mostly of his friends and were not members of the official presidentially appointed and Senate confirmed cabinet of advisors.
Peggy Eaton Affair	Refusal of the official cabinet’s wives to listen to President Jackson’s order to socially accept the wife of Jackson’s Secretary of War, which resulted in the resignation of most of the cabinet.
John C. Calhoun	Vice president to President Jackson who resigned over the Peggy Eaton Affair and the Tariff of Abominations and returned as a thorn in President Jackson’s side as a Senator from South Carolina.
Martin Van Buren	Politician who remained loyal to President Jackson during the Peggy Eaton Affair and became President Jackson’s vice president during his second term.
Indian Removal Act (1830)	Law passed by Congress and enforced by President Jackson that resulted in the forced relocation of Native Americans out of their traditional homelands to west of the Mississippi River.
the West	Name originally applied to whatever land was at the western border of the United States, but is most commonly applied to land west of the Mississippi River.
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)	Landmark SCOTUS case in which the Supreme Court threw out the case by ruling the Cherokees were not a foreign nation with the right to sue in court.
Worcester v. Georgia (1832)	Landmark SCOTUS case in which the Supreme Court ruled that state laws had no force within Native American territory, however, President Jackson did not enforce the decision.
Trail of Tears	Enforcement of the Indian Removal Act that resulted in the deadly forced removal and march of the Cherokee by the U.S. Army to land west of the Mississippi River.
Nullification Crisis	South Carolina denounced the Tariff of Abominations as unconstitutional and refused to collect the tax, which led to threats of violent enforcement from President Jackson, but ended in compromise.
States’ Rights	Emphasis on promoting and protecting the powers and authority of local governments, primarily against the authority and powers of the federal government.
Tariff of Abominations	Increased tax on foreign imports passed in 1828 that greatly angered southern states due to their reliance on foreign manufactured goods, which led to the Nullification Crisis.
Webster-Hayne Debate	Famous exchange of speeches in the Senate over nullification with a Senator from Massachusetts making a plea for unity and a Senator from South Carolina arguing in favor of states’ rights.
Proclamation to the People of South Carolina	Official statement from President Jackson declaring that nullification and disunion were treason and would be dealt with violently if necessary.
Bank of the United States	Privately owned national bank that received federal deposits and attempted to serve a public purpose by keeping the national economy stable, but faced opposition from President Jackson.
Nicholas Biddle	President of the Bank of the United States who clashed with President Jackson over the constitutionality of a national bank and ultimately lost after Congress failed to recharter the bank.
Two-Party System	Dominance of two main political parties, which returned after the split of the Democratic-Republican Party into the Democrats led by Andrew Jackson and the Whigs led by Henry Clay.
Democrats	Reminiscent of the Democratic-Republicans of Jefferson, Jackson created this party with an emphasis on the common man and protecting states’ rights.
Whigs	Reminiscent of the Federalists, Henry Clay created this party with an emphasis on federal power and supporting the American System through support of a national bank and funding internal improvements.
Pet Banks	President Jackson transferred federal funds to these state run financial institutions in order to hurt Nicholas Biddle and the Bank of the United States.
Roger Taney	Secretary of the Treasury for President Jackson who helped transfer federal funds from the Bank of the United States to various state banks in order to hurt the Bank of the United States.
Specie Circular	Presidential order by President Jackson requiring all purchases of federal land to be paid in gold or silver in an attempt to control land speculation, but instead led to the Panic of 1837.
Panic of 1837	Major economic downturn at the start of Martin Van Buren’s presidency that was partially caused by President Jackson’s refusal to recharter the national bank and the Specie Circular.
“Log Cabin and Hard Cider” Campaign	Successful presidential candidacy of Whig William Henry Harrison in 1840, who campaigned on his legacy as a war hero and a man of humble origins.
Great Plains	Area known for wide open prairies and where many tribes of Native Americans were forced to relocate as the United States expanded westward, where their lifestyle was revolutionized by horses.
White Settlers	Caucasian Americans who pushed into the western frontier of the United States and faced many similar survival challenges as the early colonists.
Environmental Damage	Harm caused to surrounding nature by American settlers moving into the western frontier in large numbers and clearing vital forests and overfarming the soil.
Extinction	Elimination of a species from existence, which almost happened to the American beaver and bison due to overhunting by American trappers and hunters.
Cultural Nationalism	Patriotic themes infusing every aspect of American society such as the United States for much of the 19th century as seen in American art, literature and education.
Romanticism	Cultural shift from the reason and order of the Enlightenment to an emphasis on emotion, feelings, individual acts of heroism and nature.
Transcendentalists	New England philosophers who started an idealistic movement in the 1830s that taught divinity pervades all nature and humanity, which was influenced by romanticism and a reaction to rationalism.
Ralph Waldo Emerson	Transcendentalist who advocated for American literary nationalism and argued for independent thinking and a focus on spiritual matters in essays such as “Self-Reliance” and “Nature.”
Henry David Thoreau	Transcendentalist who spent years reflecting in nature and argued for conservation and living life according to one’s conscience in his book Walden and his essay “On Civil Disobedience.”
Walden	Book written by transcendentalist Henry David Thoreau based on his writings from his time spent living simply in a cabin and reflecting in nature, which focused on moral independence and self reliance.
“On Civil Disobedience”	Essay written by transcendentalist Henry David Thoreau on his reflections on the necessity for disobeying unjust laws and accepting the penalty, which inspired future nonviolent movements.
Brook Farm	Communal experiment launched by Protestant minister George Ripley to live according to transcendentalist ideals that hosted many leading intellectuals such as Emerson, but closed in 1849
George Ripley	Puritan minister who launched the communal experiment of Brook Farm, which encouraged people to live according to transcendentalist ideals and hosted many leading intellectuals such as Emerson.
Margaret Fuller	Feminist, leader in the women’s rights movement, Brook Farm participant and editor of The Dial, which was a transcendentalist publication.
Feminist	Advocate and supporter of women’s rights and feminism, which included many transcendentalists.
Theodore Parker	Transcendentalist theologian and radical reformer who advocated for women’s rights and abolition.
Nathaniel Hawthorne	Romanticism novelist and Brook Farm participant who questioned the intolerance and conformity in American life in his written works such as The Scarlet Letter.
Utopia	Ideal community formed by withdrawing from conventional society, which many attempted to form during the antebellum period with examples including Brook Farm, the Shakers and New Harmony.
Antebellum	Term used to describe the time period after the War of 1812, but before the Civil War that included many reform movements, but also rising sectionalism.
Shakers	One of the earliest religious communal movements, followers held property in common and believed in equal gender roles, celibacy, and social discipline over freedom.
Amana Colonies	German settlers in Iowa who belonged to the religious reform movement of Pietism, which emphasized simple, communal living.
New Harmony	Secular communal experiment in Indiana led by industrialist and reformer Robert Owen, who hoped to form a utopian socialist society in response to the Industrial Revolution, but ultimately failed.
Robert Owen	Industrialist and reformer who formed New Harmony and hoped to form a utopian socialist society in response to the Industrial Revolution, but ultimately failed.
Oneida Community	Controversial cooperative community in New York started by John Humphrey Noyes in which members shared property, but also marriage partners and practiced communal child-rearing.
John Humphrey Noyes	Founder of the controversial Oneida Community, where members shared property, but also marriage partners and practiced communal child-rearing.
Fourier Phalanxes	Short-lived communal communities that formed across the United States in the 1840s based on the theories of French socialist Charles Fourier.
Charles Fourier	French socialist whose theories inspired the creation of short-lived communal communities called Fourier Phalanxes that formed across the United States in the 1840s.
George Caleb Bingham	Genre painting artist who was well known for depicting common people in various settings and carrying out domestic chores.
William S. Mount	Genre painting artist who won popularity for his lively rural compositions.
Thomas Cole	Painter of the Hudson River School art movement who emphasized the heroic beauty of American landscapes by painting dramatic scenes of the Hudson River and western frontier wilderness.
Frederick Church	Painter of the Hudson River School art movement who emphasized the heroic beauty of American landscapes by painting dramatic scenes of the Hudson River and western frontier wilderness.
Hudson River School	Art movement of the mid 1800s that expressed the Romantic Age’s fascination with the natural world by focusing on dramatic scenes of the Hudson River and western frontier wilderness.
Washington Irving	Romanticism author who wrote fiction such as “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” which included a heavy focus on American natural settings.
James Fenimore Cooper	Romanticism author who wrote Leatherstocking Tales, which was a series of novels that glorified the nobility of scouts and settlers on the American frontier.
Herman Melville	Romanticism author who wrote Moby-Dick, which reflected the theological and cultural conflicts of the era through Captain Ahab’s pursuit of a white whale.
Edgar Allen Poe	Romanticism author who focused on the irrational aspects of human behavior through poems and short stories such as “The Raven” and “The Tell-Tale Heart,” which included mystery and horror.
Second Great Awakening	Religious revival that emerged in the early 1800s that focused on individual empowerment and self-determination as backlash against America’s growing secularism and rationalism.
Timothy Dwight	Reverend and president of Yale College who helped spark the Second Great Awakening through his sermons on the opportunity for salvation for all people.
Charles Finney	Presbyterian minister from the Second Great Awakening known for his hell and brimstone sermons, similar to Johnathon Edwards, who preached that all could be saved through faith and good works.
Camp Meetings (Revivals)	Large religious gatherings, typically held outdoors, that attracted thousands because of the popular and dramatic preachings of various ministers.
Millennialism	Popular Christian religious belief of the early to mid 1800s that the world was about to end with the second coming of Jesus that continued as a new Christian denomination (Seventh-Day Adventists).
Mormons	Religious group founded by Joseph Smith in New York in 1830 that faced persecution for their beliefs and continued moving westward until finally settling in Utah.
Joseph Smith	Founder of the Mormon Church (now known as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) who led his followers westward and was murdered in Illinois by a local mob for his religious beliefs.
Brigham Young	Mormon leader who took over leadership of the Mormon Church after Joseph Smith was murdered and led the Mormons to Utah to found New Zion.
New Zion	Settlement founded by the Mormons near Great Salt Lake when they arrived in Utah after fleeing persecution in the eastern United States.
Antebellum Period	Term used to describe the time period after the War of 1812, but before the Civil War that included many reform movements, but also rising sectionalism.
Temperance	Reform movement to limit or eliminate the consumption of alcohol because of the high rate of alcohol consumption and connections to various societal ills such as crime, poverty and abuse of women.
American Temperance Society	Organization founded in 1826 by Protestant ministers and others who were concerned with drinking and tried to persuade people to take a pledge of total abstinence.
Washingtonians	Organization founded in 1840 by a group of recovering alcoholics who argued alcoholism was a disease that needed practical, helpful treatment.
Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)	Influential organization founded by women that played a major role in the temperance and prohibition movements of the late 1800s and early 1900s.
Dorothea Dix	Reformer and former schoolteacher who was horrified by the terrible treatment of the mentally ill and advocated for professional treatment and better facilities for mentally ill persons.
Thomas Gallaudet	Education reformer who opened the first school for the deaf in the United States and advocated for the creation of more schools for people with physical disabilities.
Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe	Education reformer and abolitionist who opened one of the first schools for the blind in the United States and advocated for the creation of more schools for people with physical disabilities.
Penitentiaries	New prisons built as a reform attempt, where prisoners were placed in solitary confinement to force them to reflect on sins and repent, however, the high rate of prisoner suicides ended the experiment.
Asylum Movement	Reformers proposed setting up new public institutions such as state-supported prisons and mental hospitals with the hope that structure and discipline would cause inmates to morally reform.
Auburn System	Penal reform experiment in New York that enforced rigid rules of discipline while also providing moral instruction and work programs.
Horace Mann	Education reformer from Massachusetts who advocated for free common public schools with compulsory attendance, longer school years and increased teacher preparation.
Common (Public) School Movement	Education reformers advocated for states to create and fund schools open to all students with compulsory attendance, longer school years and increased teacher preparation.
McGuffey Readers	Elementary textbooks created by an education reformer from Pennsylvania that became widely used to teach reading and morality in public schools.
Cult of Domesticity	Popular mid 1800s belief that women should provide religious and moral instruction in the home, but avoid the rough world of politics and business in the larger sphere of society.
Sarah Grimké	Women’s rights advocate and abolitionist leader who spoke out against the cult of domesticity and wrote Letters on the Equality of the Sexes, and the Conditions of Women
Letters on the Equality of the Sexes, and the Conditions of Women	Series of published letters written by Sarah Grimké arguing against the cult of domesticity and in favor of women’s rights.
Angelina Grimké	Women’s rights advocate and abolitionist leader who spoke out against the cult of domesticity along with her sister Sarah Grimké.
Lucretia Mott	Abolitionist who became a vocal women’s rights advocate after being barred from speaking at an antislavery convention and worked with Elizabeth Cady Stanton to hold the Seneca Falls Convention.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton	Abolitionist who became a vocal women’s rights advocate after being barred from speaking at an antislavery convention and worked with Lucretia Mott to hold the Seneca Falls Convention.
Seneca Falls Convention	First women’s rights convention held in the United States and was hosted in New York in 1848 where representatives wrote and issued the “Declaration of Sentiments.”
“Declaration of Sentiments”	Women's rights document written at the Seneca Falls Convention and based on the Declaration of Independence that listed women’s grievances against discriminatory laws and customs.
Susan B. Anthony	Women’s rights advocate and abolitionist who campaigned heavily for women’s suffrage and founded the National Woman Suffrage Association.
American Colonization Society	Organization founded on the idea of transporting freed slaves to Africa to escape racism in the United States and established the African American settlement of Monrovia, Liberia.
American Anti-Slavery Society	Organization founded by William Llyod Garrison and other radical abolitionists in 1833 that called for the immediate abolition of slavery in all American states and territories.
Abolition	Action of ending the institution of slavery and freeing all those who had been enslaved, which started to grow into a major reform movement in the mid 1800s.
William Lloyd Garrison	Radical abolitionist who published the abolitionist newspaper, The Liberator, helped found the American Anti-Slavery Society and condemned the Constitution as a proslavey document.
The Liberator	Abolitionist newspaper published by radical abolitionist William Llyod Garrison.
Liberty Party	Political party formed by Northern abolitionists in 1840 and only had one campaign pledge, which was to bring about the end of slavery by political and legal means.
Frederick Douglass	Major leader in the abolition movement and former slave who was famous for his powerful speeches and written works who later became an advisor to President Abraham Lincoln.
The North Star	Antislavery journal started by Frederick Douglass in 1847.
Harriet Tubman	Abolitionist leader and former slave who led many other slaves to freedom as a highly successful conductor on the Underground Railroad.
David Ruggles	African-American abolitionist leader from New York City who published abolitionist material and aided escaped slaves through the Committee of Vigilance and Underground Railroad.
Sojourner Truth	Abolitionist and women's rights activist who was a former slave and delivered her best-known speech, “Ain't I a Woman?”, in 1851 at the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio.
William Still	African-American abolitionist and conductor on the Underground Railroad who was a member of the Vigilance Committee of the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery and wrote The Underground Railroad Records.
David Walker	African-American abolitionist from Boston who published An Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World, which was a highly influential call for black unity and the fight against slavery.
Henry Highland Garnet	African-American abolitionist and former slave who advocated for slaves to violently rise up against their owners and was the first black minister to preach to the House of Representatives.
Nat Turner	Slave from Virginia who led a violent slave uprising in 1831 that resulted in 55 Whites being killed and was ruthlessly put down and heightened Southern fear of ending slavery.
American Peace Society	Reform organization founded in 1828 that wanted to abolish war and actively protested the Mexican-American War in 1848.
Free African Americans	African Americans who were not enslaved and often resided in cities of the North and South to find work, but still faced racial discrimination and prejudice.
Denmark Vesey	Free African American who helped propose a massive slave escape plan that involved capturing ships and sailing to freedom, but was discovered and hung with over thirty conspirators.
Nat Turner	Slave from Virginia who led a violent slave uprising in 1831 that resulted in 55 Whites being killed and was ruthlessly put down and heightened Southern fear of ending slavery.
Slave Codes	Laws that strictly regulated the status of slaves and their lack of rights or freedoms, which became more strict and more harshly enforced after several attempted slave rebellions.
King Cotton	Term used by Southern authors and orators before the Civil War to indicate the economic dominance of the Southern cotton industry, and that the North needed the South's cotton.
Eli Whitney	Inventor of the cotton gin, which greatly reduced the time and labor involved in separating cotton from the seeds and resulted in cotton becoming profitable and increased demand for slave labor.
Planters	Southern American farmers and typically slave owners who moved farther and farther west to grow cotton because it depleted the soil so quickly.
Peculiar Institution	Term used to describe slavery and often used in association with a defense of slavery by calling it a positive good for the economy and society by “establishing the proper relation between races.”
Deep South	Area of the lower southern states that was also known as the Cotton Kingdom for its reliance on producing cotton, but was also known for the terrible treatment of slaves in the region.
Slave Codes	Laws that strictly regulated the status of slaves and their lack of rights or freedoms, which became more strict and more harshly enforced after several attempted slave rebellions.
Poor Whites	Caucasian farmers who could not afford slaves or the best land, who made up a majority of the caucasian population of the South, but still defended slavery in order to maintain their social status.
Hillbillies	Derisive term wealthy planters used to describe the poor whites who often lived in the bad farming lands of the hills of the South.
Mountain People	Small number of farmers who lived in the frontier conditions of the Appalachian and Ozark Mountains who typically disliked the wealthy planters and did not want to protect the system of slavery.
Code of Chivalry	Expectation of gentlemanly conduct by the wealthy planters that included a strong sense of personal honor, the defense of womanhood, and paternalistic attitudes towards inferiors, especially slaves.

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