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History of Planning
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| First national planning conference | 1909 Held at the National Conference on City Planning and Congestion Relief in Washington, D.C. |
| First city planning course (year, university) | 1909 Was taught in Harvard's Landscape Architecture Department. |
| "Wacker's Manual of the Plan of Chicago" (year published, author) | Published 1912 Walter Moody Adopted as an eighth-grade textbook by the Chicago Board of Education. First known formal instruction in city planning below the college level. |
| "Carrying Out the City Plan" (year published, author) | Published 1914 Flavell Shurtleff First major textbook on city planning |
| When was the American City Planning Institute of Planners (ACIP) founded? Who was the first president? | 1917 Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. |
| The first issue of "City Planning" released in what year? | 1925 by the American City Planning Institute and the National Conference on City Planning. "City Planning" was the predecessor to the current Journal of the American Planning Association. |
| Founding year of the American Society of Planning Officials | 1934 |
| What year did the AIP adopt a Code of Ethics for professional planners? | 1971 |
| When was the first exam for AIP membership was administered? | 1977 |
| When was the American Planning Association created? | 1978 |
| When was the first issue of the Journal of Planning Education and Research published? | 1981 By the the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning |
| Which city passed the first land use zoning restrictions on the location of noxious uses and in what year? | San Francisco 1867 |
| First local civic center plan (year/city/people involved) | 1903 Cleveland Daniel Burnham, John Carrere, and Arnold Brunner were responsible for the plan's development. |
| First major American city to apply City Beautiful principles (city, year, planner) | 1906 San Francisco Daniel Burnham |
| First town planning board (year, city) | 1907 Hartford, CT |
| Who created the first metropolitan regional plan for Chicago? (planner, year) | 1909 Daniel Burnham |
| Which was the first state to pass enabling legislation for zoning? (year, state) | 1909 Wisconsin |
| What was the first city to use land use zoning to guide development? (year, city) | 1909 Los Angeles |
| Which city hired the first full-time employee for a city planning commission? (city, year) | 1914 Newark, NJ Name: Harland Bartholomew |
| Which city adopted the first comprehensive zoning code? And who wrote it? (city, year, planner) | 1916 NYC Edward Bassett |
| Which place formed the first regional planning commission? (year, place) | 1922 Los Angeles County |
| When was the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act issued? | 1924 by Secretary Herbert Hoover of the U.S. Department of Commerce |
| What was the first major U.S. city to adopt a comprehensive plan? (city, year, planners) | 1925 City of Cincinnati produced by Alfred Bettman and Ladislas Segoe |
| When was the Standard City Planning Enabling Act released? | 1928, by the U.S. Department of Commerce, under Secretary Herbert Hoover |
| When was the first U.S. National Planning Board created? | 1933 It was later renamed the National Resources Planning Board and then abolished in 1943. |
| In which city was the first federally supported public housing constructed? (year, city) | 1934 Cleveland, OH |
| What was the first state to introduce statewide zoning? (year, state) | 1961 Hawaii |
| "How the Other Half Lives" (author, year published, significance) | Jacob Riis 1890 This book resulted in housing reform in New York City. |
| "Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform" (author, year published, significance) | Ebenezer Howard 1898 This book initiated the Garden City movement. |
| "Wacker's Manual of the Plan of Chicago" (author, year published, significance) | Walter Moody 1912 This book was adopted as a textbook for eighth graders in Chicago. |
| "Carrying Out the City Plan" (author, year published, significance) | Flavel Shurtleff 1914 This book was the first major textbook on city planning. |
| "Cities in Evolution" (author, year published, significance) | Patrick Geddes 1915 This book centers on regional planning, and Geddes is known as the "father of regional planning." |
| "Planning of the Modern City" (author, year published) | Nelson Lewis 1916 |
| "Local Planning Administration" (author, year published, significance) | Ladislas Segoe 1941 This book was the first in the Green Book Series produced by the International City/County Management Association. |
| "Urban Land Use Planning" (author, year published, significance) | F. Stuart Chapin 1957 This book became a common textbook on land use planning. |
| "Image of the City" (author, year published, significance) | Kevin Lynch 1960 This book defines basic concepts within the city, such as edges and nodes. |
| "The Death and Life of Great American Cities" (author, year published, significance) | Jane Jacobs 1961 This book focuses on the mistakes of urban renewal. |
| "Silent Spring" (author, year published, significance) | Rachel Carson 1962 This book focuses on the negative effects of pesticides on the environment. |
| "The Urban General Plan" (author, year published) | TJ Kent 1964 |
| "With Heritage So Rich" (author, year published, significance) | Alfred Reins 1966 This is a seminal book on historic preservation. |
| "Design with Nature" (author, year published, significance) | Ian McHarg 1969 This book focuses on conservation design using an overlay technique that was later the basis of GIS. |
| "The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces" (author, year published, significance) | William Whyte 1980 This book promotes the use of environmental psychology and sociology in urban design. |
| ________ created the New York Housing Authority. In 1965 he published The City is the Frontier, a book that was highly critical of U.S. federal policies surrounding slum clearance, urban renewal, and public housing. | Charles Abrams |
| ________ was an important planner during the Garden City movement. He was the secretary of the Garden City Association and became the first manager of Letchworth, U.K. | Thomas Adams |
| ________ was an advocate of community organizing. He organized Chicago's poor in the late 1930s and 1940s. Later he published Rules for Radicals, which provided 13 rules for community organizing. | Saul Alinsky |
| ________ wrote "A Ladder of Citizen Participation” for the Journal of the American Planning Association in 1969. This article describes the levels of involvement by citizens depending on the form of participation utilized. | Sherry Arnstein |
| ________ was a Chicago architect and prominent proponent of the City Beautiful movement. He was the leader behind the 1893 Columbian Exposition and later the 1909 Plan of Chicago. His most famous quote is "Make no little plans. They have no fire to stir m | Daniel Burnham |
| ________ wrote "Silent Spring", an important book in environmental planning. | Rachel Carson |
| ________ transformed New York City's public works from the 1930s through the 1950s. He expanded the state's park system and built numerous parkways. He also built parks, playgrounds, highways, bridges, tunnels, and public housing. | Robert Moses |
| ________ designed Mariemont, Ohio and was a leading planner and landscape architect. He made substantial contributions including creating the first comprehensive plan in Florida. | John Nolen |
| _______ is considered the father of landscape architecture. He is responsible for many of the nation's most important parks including Central and Prospect Parks in NYC, Niagra Reservation, and university campus landscapes. He was part of the design team | Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr. |
| _______ developed the neighborhood unit concept which was implemented in Radburn, New Jersey. He was a key contributor to the 1929 Regional Survey of New York and its Environs. | Clarence Perry |
| ________ was an architect responsible for designing Arcosanti, an experimental utopian city in Arizona focused on minimizing the impact of development on the natural environment. | Paolo Soleri |
| ________ designed Sunnyside Gardens in Queens, NY, Radburn, NJ, and many other garden suburbs in the U.S. He was a major proponent of the Garden City movement. He wrote New Town for America in 1951. | Clarence Stein |
| _______ served as the head of the Resettlement Administration during the New Deal. He worked on the greenbelt cities program, which sought construction of new, self-sufficient cities. | Rexford Tugwell |
| _______ was an English town planner and designer of Letchworth (the first garden city). He later lectured at the University of Birmingham in England and Columbia University. He wrote Town Planning in Practice, published in 1909. | Sir Raymond Unwin |
| _______ was a founder of American housing policy. She worked to reform policy that was related to housing and city planning. She served as executive secretary of the Regional Planning Association of America. She wrote Modern Housing and was influential in | Catherine Bauer Wurster |
| City Beautiful Movement (timeframe, leader, models) | late 1800s - early 1900s Daniel Burnham lead this movement. The White City, created by Daniel Burnham in Chicago for the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893. The McMillan Plan of 1901 for Washington D.C. |
| Garden City Movement (timeframe, leaders, models) | late 1800s - 1920s and throughout the Depression and post-WWII Ebenezer Howard; "To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform". Self-contained cities. 1903 - Lenchworth (Howard) 1922 - Sunnyside Gardens (Clarence Stein) |
| First American Garden City (city, year, leaders) | Radburn, New Jersey 1928 Clarence Stein and Henry Wright |
| City Efficient movement | AKA City Scientific, was a reaction against the City Beautiful movement. |
| City Humane movement (timeframe, model) | The City Humane movement arose in the 1930s following The Great Depression. It was primarily concerned with jobs and housing. |
| Who established the Resettlement Administration? And what program was it responsible for? | President Roosevelt established the Resettlement Administration in 1935, during the Great Depression. The agency was responsible for the Greenbelt Towns Program (or Green Towns Program). The Green Towns program developed three cities in WI, OH, and MD. |
| In 1946, this Act led to the development of more than a dozen new communities based on Howard's ideas. | The New Towns Act in Great Britain Most of the Garden Cities that were developed failed to attain Howard's ideal. Most lacked industry and true city centers and, in the end, became residential suburbs. |
| City Functional Movement (timeframe, model) | The City Functional movement was developed during the 1940’s, coincident with the growth of the military and post-war industrialization. It emphasized administrative efficiency. |
| What did the Land Ordinance of 1785 provide? | It provided for the rectangular land survey of the Old Northwest. The survey was completed following the end of the Revolutionary War and provided a systematic way to divide and distribute land to the public. |
| When was the Homestead Act passed? What did it provide? | Passed by Congress in 1862 It provided 160 acres of land to settlers for a fee of $18 and a guarantee of five years of residence. The result was the settlement of 270 million acres or 10% of the land area of the United States. |
| What was the purpose of the Morrill Act of 1862? | It allowed new western states to establish colleges. |
| When was the General Land Law Revision Act passed? What did it provide? | 1891 This Act provided the President of the United States with the power to create forest preserves by proclamation. |
| When was the Forest Management Act passed? What did it provide? | 1897 It allowed the Secretary of the Interior to manage forest preserves. |
| When was the U.S. Reclamation Act passed? What did it provide? | 1902 It allowed the funds raised from the sale of public land in arid states to be used to construct water storage and irrigation systems. |
| In 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt appointed a ________ to propose rules for land development and management. | Public Lands Commission |
| In 1906, the ________ was the first law to provide federal protection for archaeological sites. The Act allowed for the designation of National Monuments. | Antiquities Act |
| In 1935, the ________ was formed to carry out experiments in population resettlement and land reform. The result was the development of Greenbelt towns. | Resettlement Administration |
| In 1944, the ________, commonly known as the ________, guaranteed home loans to veterans. The result was the rapid development of suburbs. | Servicemen's Readjustment Act / GI Bill |
| The Chicago Plan (year, creator, significance) | 1909 Daniel Burnham First regional plan in the U.S. Incorporated ideas from the City Beautiful movement, esp. waterfront development, parks, and civic center spaces. Failed to address housing, poverty, and transportation efficiency. |
| First comprehensive plan (year, creators, city) | 1925 Alfred Bettman and Ladislas Segoe Cincinnati The Cincinnati Plan focused on infrastructure projects and called for planning to be controlled by a citizen city planning commission. |
| Between 1922 and 1929, the ________ was created. The plan focused on suburban development, highway construction, and suburban recreational facilities. Stein and Mumford were involved in the creation of the plan. | Regional Plan for New York and Environs |
| During the Depression, few comprehensive plans were developed, although the ________ was creating them for greenbelt towns. | Resettlement Administration |
| Following World War II, the rapid development of suburban areas led to an increase in ________. | comprehensive planning |
| The _______ of 1954 was the largest impetus for comprehensive planning. The Act required cities to develop comprehensive plans and provided funding for planning under Section 701. | U.S. Housing Act |
| During the 1970s and 1980s, comprehensive plans moved to concerns of equity, neighborhood preservation, affordable housing, environmental protection, and historic preservation. As an example, the ________ addressed transit and commercial rehabilitation. | Second Regional Plan of New York and Environs of 1970 |
| The 1970s also saw the introduction of the state requirements into comprehensive planning. Name three key states that required comp planning as a result early on? | Oregon and Minnesota passed laws requiring comprehensive planning. In 1985, Florida passed a law that required communities to develop comprehensive plans. |
| ________ are used to help us understand the pattern and form that development takes. Though they are historical and somewhat abstract (cities do not grow in concentric circles), in varying degrees, cities still seem to hold some aspects of each one. | Theories of urban development |
| Theories of Urban Development (name all four) | Concentric Circle Sector Multiple Nuclei Central Place |
| The ________ was developed by Ernest Burgess in 1925. Burgess was a sociologist who studied the growth of Chicago. He believed that cities grow in a series of outward rings, and land use is based on distance from downtown. | Concentric Circle Theory |
| Burgess's work was foundational to the concept of a ________, which is a theory explaining land use patterns based on how much people are willing to pay for land, based on the profits that are likely to receive from maintaining a business on that land. | bid rent curve |
| The theory that argues land uses vary based on transportation routes, and the city, as a result, was a series of sectors radiating out from the center of the city. | Sector Theory (developed by Homer Hoyt in 1939) |
| This theory states that cities develop a series of specific land use nuclei. A land use nucleus is formed because of accessibility to natural resources, clustering of similar uses, land prices, and the repelling power of land uses. | Multiple Nuclei Theory (developed by Harris and Ullman in 1945) |
| This theory states that there is a minimum market threshold to bring a firm to a city and there is a maximum range of people who are willing to travel to receive goods and services. | Central Place Theory |
| This theory can be useful as a way of understanding the hierarchy of retail establishments in cities (for example nail salons on every block, a grocery store every 10 blocks, and a large shopping center servicing a much larger area). | Central Place Theory |
| What are the three major constitutional principles associated with planning? | First Amendment: Freedom of Speech, Religion, and Association Fifth Amendment: Just compensation for takings Fourteenth Amendment: Due process |
| ________ is a legal requirement that the government respect a person's rights before taking away their life, liberty, or property. | Due process |
| The Fifth Amendment requires just compensation for takings, so this amendment applies in cases of takings and ________. | eminent domain |
| ________ is about the validity of the rule itself, which in planning might include issues of aesthetics | Substantive due process |
| ________ is about whether the rules were applied fairly, which in planning might include how an ordinance was applied. | Procedural due process |
| ________ is often applied to exclusionary zoning. | Equal protection |
| The ________ without just compensation is a violation of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments. | taking of property |
| Theories of ________ are about how planners perform their work. | planning practice |
| What are the basic steps of rational planning? | Set Goals Determine Alternatives Evaluate the Alternatives Choose an Alternative Implement the Alternative Evaluate |
| What term is used to described how planners accept that the human mind is limited in its ability to solve problems. We instead choose alternatives that are good enough. | "satisfices" |
| One of the criticisms of the rational model is that it cannot be used when we have ________ problems. | "wicked" problems (e.g., homelessness) Wicked problems have no one root cause and no one alternative that can eliminate the problem. |
| Rational planning should not be used if there is no ________ within a community on a particular issue. | consensus |
| Rational planning was the dominant planning theory through the _______. While this model has been discredited, it can still be seen in use in all areas of the planning practice. In particular, ________. | 1950s; transportation planning |
| In 1959, Charles Lindblom published the article "The Science of Muddling Through", which introduced the concept of _______. | incrementalism |
| Every planner practices some degree of incremental planning. An example in many communities is the _______. Planning departments rarely conduct a complete overhaul of the ________; instead, it is tweaked to assist in achieving the goals of the comp plan. | zoning ordinance |
| _______ views planning decisions at two levels: the big picture and the small picture. | Mixed Scanning |
| Amitai Etzioni introduced the concept of mixed scanning as a compromise between ________ and ________ planning theories. For example, a comprehensive plan would be created using ___, while the implementation of the plan would use ___. | rational and incremental planning approaches |
| ________ was developed in the 1960s by Paul Davidoff as a way to represent the interests of groups within a community. Planners would either work directly for the interest group or as an inside advocate at the city hall. | Advocacy Planning |
| Norman Krumholz adopted ________ in Cleveland during the 1970s and helped make the needs of low-income groups the highest priority. | Equity Planning |
| While advocacy planning promoted the planner as an advocate for special interest groups, some argued that the role of the planner should be to advocate specifically for the disadvantaged in the community. This is known as ________. | Equity Planning |
| ________ planning theory was developed in the 1970s as a way to get the public more involved in the planning process. In ________ planning, the planner meets with individuals in the community to discuss issues and help develop a plan. | Transactive |
| In Transactive Planning, there is a process of ________,where the planner shares technical knowledge, while the citizens provide community knowledge. | mutual learning |
| What are the three main criticisms of Transactive Planning? | 1: it takes a large amount of time to meet with individuals and utilize the mutual learning process. 2: how to evaluate the importance of each person's community knowledge. 3: it cannot work in situations with many stakeholders/different opinions. |
| In his book, "Planning in the Public Domain: From Knowledge to Action", John Friedmann introduces ___ planning, which involves taking power away from the government and giving it to the people. Here, citizens get together and develop their own plans. | Radical (the book was published in 1987) |
| Example of Radical Planning | (tenant associations) Some public housing authorities have turned management decisions over to tenants, who are responsible for proposing policy change. |
| _____ planning is currently the theory of choice among planning practitioners. This theory recognizes that planning operates within the realm of politics and that it contains a variety of stakeholder interests. | Communicative |
| In Communicative Planning, the planner acts as a _____ among stakeholders. | facilitator |
| The communicative planner's primary function is to ___ to people's views and assist in forging a consensus among different viewpoints. The planner's role is to ___ among stakeholders through talk and discussion. | listen; mediate |
| The 2020 Decennial Census of Population was the 24th census in U.S. history and the first time that all households were invited to respond to the census _____. | online |
| One of the largest changes to the 2010 Decennial Census of Population and Housing was the elimination of the ___. With the ___ eliminated, households only received the short form with 10 questions. | long form |
| The 2000 Decennial Census of Population and Housing was ___ to each household using the 1990 Census address information | mailed |
| Additionally, the 2000 Census for the first time allowed the respondents to select more than one ___ that they identify as. | race |
| It is estimated that __% of the U.S. population now lives in urban areas, up from 64% in 1950. | 83% |
| Starting with the 2020 census, the Census Bureau uses a delineation of ___ to replace previous terms. | urban area |
| What qualifies a territory as an urban area? | To qualify as an urban area, the territory identified according to criteria must encompass at least 2,000 housing units or have a population of at least 5,000. |
| Urbanized Area | The Census Bureau previously defined an urbanized area wherever it found an urban nucleus of 50,000 or more people. These urbanized areas may or may not have contained any individual cities of 50,000 or more. |
| Urban Cluster | Prior to the use of the urban area definition, "urban clusters" had at least 2,500 but less than 50,000 persons and a population density of 1,000 persons per square mile. |
| Metropolitan Statistical Area | includes at least one city with 50,000 or more inhabitants, or an urbanized area (of at least 50,000 inhabitants), and a total metropolitan population of at least 100,000. |
| Micropolitan Statistical Area | has a population of more than 10,000 people and less than 50,000 people. |
| Census Designated Places | is made up of several PMSA's. An example is the Dallas-Fort Worth Consolidated Metropolitan Area. Dallas and Fort Worth are each primary metropolitan statistical areas. |
| Core Based Statistical Area | there is a core area with at least 10,000 people that when combined with other adjacent communities is socially and economically integrated. |
| Megalopolis | Ex: the 300-mile-long urban area between Boston and Washington D.C. any many-centered, multi-city, urban area of more than 10 million inhabitants, generally dominated by low-density settlement and complex networks of economic specialization |
| Census Tract | Census tract typically has a population between 2,000 and 8,000 people. It is the smallest area where all information is released. |
| Census Block | Census block is the smallest level at which the Census data is collected. There are typically 400 housing units per block. |
| Census Block Group | A group of Census Blocks. They generally contain 600-3,000 people, and are used to present data and control block numbering. |
| Tribal Designated Statistical Area | a unit drawn by tribes that do not have a recognized land area. |
| Threshold Population | Determines program eligibility. For example, the Threshold Population to qualify to receive Community Development Block Grant Funds. |
| This survey, which replaces the long form in the decennial Census, takes a sample of the population and projects the findings to the population as a whole. The survey rotates annually so that no household receives the survey more than once in 5 years. | American Community Survey (ACS) |
| _____ are essential considerations in planning. | Diversity, Equity and Inclusion (sometimes shortened to “DEI”) |
| _____ is about “being fair or impartial" | Equity |
| _____ is about “valuing and including different perspectives.” | Diversity |
| ____ is about is about “allowing people to participate in the process…. truly listening, understanding that every choice counts and incorporating a robust, open and diverse community process.” | Inclusion |
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