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Anthropology exam 2
Covers stuff from exam 1, exam 1 itself, and new stuff learned since then
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What's the average range of human brain size | 1100-1200 cc |
| What the range of human brain size | 1000-2000 cc |
| William Paley | Argument from design - clock and the clockmaker |
| Comte de Buffon - 1700s | Stressed change in species - similarities between apes and humans |
| Jean Baptiste Lamarck | grew convinced species transmutation occurred over time |
| Lamarckian evolution | inheritance of acquired characteristics |
| Three basic components of biological evolution | variation, randomness, and natural selection |
| Phenotypic plasticity | non-genetic biological changes induced by environmental stress (acclimatization and developmental acclimatation) |
| Genetic adaptations | Hardwired in the genetic program with little flexibility of response |
| Cultural adaptations | Unique approaches found in homo sapiens |
| Linnaean Hierarchy | KPCOFGS |
| Species | interbreeding in nature and producing reproductively viable offspring |
| Reductionist approach | examines the degree of similarities and differences using comparison method |
| Human classification | Animalia, Chordata (vertebrata), Mammalia, Primates, Hominidae, Homo, Sapiens |
| Family Hominidae | includes apes and humans |
| Allopatric speciation | two populations of the same species become isolated from one another due to geographic changes |
| Peripatric speciation | Type of allopatric speciation -smaller- small subset of a population buds off from the parent population and forms a new species - isolated niche |
| Parapatric speciation | species is spread over large geographical area; while not geographically divided, because of distance, interbreeding occurs only among the individuals of a species in a given geographical region - adjacent niche |
| Sympatric speciation | two or more species form, diverge from a parent species, and live in the same geographical area - genetic polymorphism |
| Superfamily | Hominoidea |
| Homininae subfamily | Homo, pan, and gorilla |
| Ponginae subfamily | pongo |
| Primate suborders | Strepsirhini and Haplorhini |
| Haplorhini infraorders | Tarsiiformes and Simiiformes |
| Simiiformes parvorders | Platyrrhini and Catarrhini |
| Law of stratigraphic succession | Layer-cake beds are older when lower in sequence |
| Biostratigraphy | Using index fossils with a short timespan and great range to relatively date the rocks in which fossils are found |
| Carbon 14 | Nitrogen 14 |
| Potassium 40 | Argon 40 |
| Uranium 235 | Lead 207 |
| Uranium 238 | Lead 206 |
| Thorium 232 | Lead 208 |
| Rubidium 87 | Strontium 87 |
| Holocene | 10 KA |
| Pleistocene | 2.6 MYA |
| Pliocene | 5.3 MYA |
| Miocene | 23 MYA |
| Generational time | For modern humans is 20 years, but becomes shorter as we go further back in time |
| Paleoanthropology begins at the K-T boundary | Divides Mesozoic (age of reptiles) from the Cenozoic (age of mammals) |
| Eocene epoch (55-34 MYA) | Earliest definite primate, prosimian radiation, earliest anthropoids |
| Oligocene epoch (34-23 MYA) | earliest anthropoids, early anthropoid radiation, Aegyptopithecus, Apidium |
| Miocene epoch (23-5 MYA) | Earliest hominoid, hominoid radiation, Proconsul, Dryopithecus, Sivapithecus |
| Eocene primates | wide range of mammals, but primate fossils are prosimians; no anthropoids |
| Carpostles (Eocene) | Nails instead of claws, suite of primate traits; forward facing eyes, grasping hands and feet, many small fossils |
| Northarctus tyrannis (Eocene) - 50 MYA | Vertical clinging and leaping behavior, grooming claw |
| Adapis parisiensis (Eocene) - 50-34 MYA | Paris Basin - post-orbital bar, forward facing eyes, 250 g |
| Catopithecus browni (Eocene) - 36 MYA | Possibly early basal anthropoid; early catarrhine; Found in Fayum, post-orbital closure, 2:1:2:3 dental formula, diurnal (orbit to skull size) |
| Proconsul nyanzae (Early Miocene) - 23-14 MYA | Fused frontal, 2:1:2:3, quadrupedal with grasping hands and feet but not suspensory, no tail, stem ape |
| Aegyptopithecus zeuxis (Oligocene) - 38-29 MYA | early stem Catarrhine, predates split between ape's ad old world monkeys, 22-36 inches long, fused mandible and frontal bones, grasping hallux, 2:1:2:3, post-orbital closure |
| Miocene hominoids (apes) | Afropithecus turkanensis, griphopithecus, morotopithecus |
| Afropithecus turkanensis (Miocene) - 16-18 MYA | facial and dental morphology suggest hard fruit diet |
| Griphopithecus (Miocene) - 13.6-11.1 MYA | Turkey and central Europe |
| Morotopithecus bishopi (Miocene) - 20.6 MYA | Moroto Uganda, may be a sister taxon to the clade that includes gorilla, pan, and homo |
| Sivapithecus indicus (late miocene) - 12.5-8.5 MYA | GSP-15000, Siwalik Hills, Pakistan |
| Earliest hominins | Africa, late Miocene (7MYA) , traits indicating bipedality, suite of upper body characteristics for suspensory locomotion |
| Africa is the homeland of the hominins | Darwin and Huxley |
| pre-genus Homo hominins | Sahelanthropus, Orrorin, Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, Paranthropus, Kenyanthropus |
| Sahelanthropus tchadensis | Chad 7MYA |
| Orrorin tugenensis | Kenya 6 MYA |
| Ar. Kadabba | Ethiopia 5.6MYA |
| Ar. ramidus | Ethiopia 4.5-5 MYA |
| Au. anamensis | Kenya 4.2-3.9 MYA |
| Au. afarenisis | Ethiopia and Tanzania 3.9-2.9 MYA |
| Au. deyirneda | Ethiopia 3.4 MYA |
| Au. africanus | South Africa and Kenya 3.03-2.04 MYA |
| Au. bahrelghazali | Chad 3-3.5 MYA |
| Au. gahri | Ethiopia 2.5 MYA |
| Au. sebida | South Africa 2-1.2 MYA |
| P. aethiopicus | Kenya and Ethiopia 2.7-2.5 MYA |
| P. robustus | South Africa 2-1.2 MYA |
| P. boisei | Kenya, Tanzania, and Ethiopia 2-1 MYA |
| Kenyanthropus platyops | Kenya 2.5 MYA |
| Koro Toro | S. techadensis, Au. afarensis |
| Hadar, Konso, Middle awash | P. boisei, H. habilis, Au. afarensis, Au. deyiremeda, Au. gahri, Ar. kadabba, Ar. ramidus |
| omo | Au. afarensis, P. aethiopicus, P. boisei, H. erectus |
| Lake Turkana | Au. anamensis, P. aethiopicus, P. boisei, K. platyops, H. habilis, H. rudolfensis, H. erectus |
| Tugen Hills | O. tugenensis |
| Olduvai | P. boisei, H. habilis, H. erectus |
| Laetoli | Au. afarensis |
| Uraha | H. rudolfensis |
| South Africa | Au. africanis, Au. sediba, P. robustus, H. habilis, H. erectus |
| open air localities in the Eastern Rift Valley | Hadar and Aramis (Ethiopia), Olduvai Gorge and Laetoli (Tanzania), East and West Turkana (Kenya) |
| South African australopithecine localities | Taung, Sterkfontein, Makapansgat, Malapa |
| South African paranthropine localities | Swartkrans and Kromdraai |
| South Africa fossil sites | Sterkfontein, Taung, Swartkrans |
| East Africa fossil sites | Aramis, Kanapoi, Allia Bay, Hadar, Laetoli, Turkana, Bouri, Kobbi Fora, Olduvai, Afar depressiom |
| Ardi - Awash river, Ethiopia | Ar. ramidus; adult female, 4ft, 120 pounds, walked uprightbut lacked the arch-like foot structure and efficient gate of later hominins ; long arms, long hands, short legs |
| Lucy | Au. afarensis |
| Turkana Boy | H. heidelbergensis |
| Sahelanthropus tchadensis (Miocene ape) - 6-7MYA: Djurab desert, Chad; Alain Beauvilain, 2001-2002 | Cranial and dental of possible several individuals; large canines; small cranial capacity (340-360 cc), biped (foramen magnum), flat face, distorted cranium; very primitive hominin, may represent a common ancestor of Pan, gorilla, and homo |
| Orrorin tugenensis (Miocene ape) - 6MYA: Tugen Hills, Northern Kenya; M. Pickford and B. Senut, 2000 | Mandible, teeth (bunodont molars and small canines), femora, and right humerous (14 fossil fragments) of five individuals; bipedal (obturator externus m. attatchment on posterior femoral neck) |
| Ardipithecus ramidus (4.4 MYA) and Ardipithecus kadabba (5.8-5.2 MYA): Aramis, Northern Ethiopia; Tim White (plio-pleistocene) - 1990s | dental (small canines, sectoral lower third premolar thin enamel), cranial (small capacity), and postcranial remains of 40 individuals; biped (pelvis, foot, and skull) - close to hominin-pan divergence |
| Australopithecus anamensis (Plio-Pleistocene)- 4.2-3.9MYA; Lake Turkana, Kenya; Meave Leakey, 1960s-1990s | mostly dental remains with some postcranial elements (primitive hominin but with thick dental enamel); probably bipedal (knee joint); earliest and most primitive member of australopithecus |
| Lucy (AL-288-1) - Hadar | 1974, Don Johanson, Tom Gray, and Jon Kalb; 40% complete, high intermembral index, curved phalanges = arborealism; Lower limbs = bipedalism |
| Australopithecus afarensis (Plio-Pleistocene) - 4-3.5MYA; Hadar, Ethiopia, and Laetoli, Tanzania; 1973-today | Teeth (megadontia), jaws (simian shelf and bony buttress at front of mandible), Laetoli footprints, bipedal (postcrania and footprint fossils) |
| Chimp jaw shape | U |
| Au. afarensis jaw shape | U (top) and V (bottom) |
| H. sapiens jaw shape | Horseshoe |
| Ar. ramidus teeth | smaller incisors, non sharpened or dimorphic canines (pair bonded mating system), enamel thickness between apes and humans |
| Homologous features (homologues) ex. pentadactyl limb structure | structural similarity (common ancestor) but not a functional similarity |
| organisms should be grouped on the basis of... | Shared specializations (ancestral features vs. derived specializations) |
| When a cluster of different species possess a number of similar traits/specializations... | they share a unique phylogenetic history |
| Homoplastic features | similar by function rather than by inheritance from a common ancestor (similar without being homologous) |
| Homoplasy can result from... | Parallelism, convergence, or analogy |
| Parallelism | homoplasies in animals with fairly recent common ancestry (channeled by it) |
| Convergence | parallell development of homoplasies in more remotely related animals (similar environments) |
| Synapomorphic features | Shared-derived features; homologies shared by closely related taxa |
| Symplesiomorphic features | Shared ancestral features; remote homologies |
| Autapomorphic features | uniquely derived features; traits unique to a particular taxon |
| Cladistic based analysis uses... | Outgroup comparison |
| determining the polarity of the morpholcline | determining which character state is more primitive or more derived |
| morphocline | sequence thought to reflect the probable direction of change in a character state |
| Problems with cladograms | reflect the pattern of relationships between species based on the analysis of character states but doesn't include info. about time |
| Anatomy of bipedalism | Foramen magnum (head balance), lumbar vertebrae (curvature), pelvic changes, femur length & bicondylar angle, knee joint, ankle & foot, body mass, intermembral index |
| Bicondylar angle | greater balance during unipedal stance - closer to COG |
| Overal COG displacement shape of human bipedalism | Figure 8 |
| Theories for bipedality | Carrying, weapons and tools, vegetable foods, water, infants, traveling between food trees, feeding rom bushes or grass seeds, provisioning family, thermoregulation, looking over tall grass, aquatic life |
| Laetoli footprints | Au. afarensis; 27 m made by three individuals; walked through wet volcanic ash - ichinofossils |
| Paranthropus aethiopicus (2.5MYA); West Turkana, Northern Kenya | small brain (400 cc), compound temporal-nuchal crest, diverging tooth row, facial prognathism, huge sagittal crest, broad and dished face, huge palate, large post-canine teeth |
| Black Skull - WT-17000 | West Turkana; p. aethiopicus |
| Nutcracker Man - OH-5 | Au. boisei from 1.75MYA; Mary and Louis Leakey, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania in 1959; small brain but bipedal |
| Paranthropus robustus (2-1MYA); South Africa (Swartkrans and Kromdraai), Robert Broom, 1930s-1950s | sagittal crest, tiny anterior and huge posterior teeth, huge jaws, broad and dished face, wide cheek bones, post-orbital constriction |
| Au. boisei (2-1MYA) - Olduvai Gorge and East Turkana | same as p. robustus; 4-5ft, 40-80 pounds |
| Sagittal crest | Origin of temporalis muscles |
| Smaller bodied primates consume... | higher quality food |
| Larger bodied primates consume... | lower quality food |
| eating meat = | smaller intestinal tract |
| Taung Child - 1924 by Raymond Dart | Au. africanus, 2-3MYA, foramen magnum and reduced canines, 400-450 cc brain, immature individual |
| Au. africanus (3-2MYA); South Africa (Taung, Sterkfontein, and Makapansgat) | Gracile australopithecine; no sagittal crest, anterior and posterior teeth larger than modern humans but not megadont; 4-5ft, 40-80 pounds |
| Killer ape theory | roots of human aggression can be found in our Plio-Pleistocene ancestry ; australopithecines were hunters and murderers |
| osteodontokeratic culture | used bones, teeth, and horns as tools and weapons |
| Homo habilis (2.5-1.8MYA) - East (Olduvai and East Turkana) and South Africa (Sterkfontain and Swartkranz) | Ancestor of homo erectus; first stone tool manufacturers (Oldowan); 700 cc brain, 4-5 ft, 70-115 pounds |
| KNM ER- 1470 & 1813 | H. habilis, East Turkana - 1.8MYA; flat face |
| Oldowan tools | simple, unifacial choppers made of basalt or quartzite |
| Homo rudolfensis | Olduvai, East Turkana, Malawi, Sterkfontein, Swartkranz, and Ethiopia; 2.5-1.8 MYA |
| Au. afarensis = stem hominin species and ancestor of.... | Au. africanus |
| Au. africanus is the common ancestor of... | Paranthropines and Homo lineage beggining with H. habilis |
| When did robust forms become extinct | about 1 MYA |
| Homo ergaster = | African Homo erectus |
| Homo ergaster series of firsts | Spread out of Africa to Europe and Asia, including temperate zones; use of fire; successful big-game hunters; Acheulean tool industry |
| Homo erectus - 1.8MYA; East & South Africa (quickly disperses to Eurasia) | 750-1250 cc brain, 6ft tall, over 100 pounds, robust, sagittal keel, large browridge, long and low skull, thick cranial bones, nuchal torus and angulated occiput, large back teeth |
| H. erectus is the ancestor of ____ and had possibly late survival in ____ | archaic Homo sapiens (300KYA); Java (50-25KYA) |
| H. erectus found in | Java, China, East Africa (Olduvai and East Turkana), and South Africa (Swartkranz) |
| The strapping youth - WT-15000 | H. ergaster; 1984; 1.6MYA juvenile, 6ft, 900 cc brain, tropical body type with tall and narrow hips, projecting external nose |
| Why was H. ergaster born to run? | hunt animals for their meat (hunted small prey and scavenged carnivore kills) |
| guts and brain are... | metabolically expensive tissues |
| How have human guts changed? | Bigger small intestine and Smaller large intestine |
| Meat in the diet may have allowed... | Metabolic trade offs |
| Major site of H. erectus African exodus | Dmanisi, republic of Georgia; crania (D4500) and femora |
| Dmanisi H. erectus ergaster georgicus major skulls | D2280, D2282/D211, D2700/D2735, D3444/D3900 (toothless), D4500/D2600 |
| H. erectus Asia sites | China = Zhoukoudian (Peking Man), Chenjiawo (Lantian), Lontandong (Hexian) Java = Trinil, Sangiran, Ngandong |
| H. ergaster Africa sites | Swartkranz, Lake Turkana, Olduvai Gorg, Sale, Rabat, Ternifine |
| Possible H. erectus European sites | Ceprano and Gran Dolina |
| H. erectus cranial traits | Large posterior teeth, browridge, low forehead, thick cranial bone, nuchal torus, sagittal ridge, 780-1200ml brain, broad base of skull |
| Oldest evidence of stone tools comes from... | Gona, Ethiopia (2.6MYA) |
| Oldowan (Mode I) tools | Chopper, hammer stone, discoid, flake scraper, polyhedron, flake, cores |
| Later stone age = | H. s. sapiens |
| Middle stone age = | Neanderthals and other archaic H. sapiens |
| Acheulean tools = | H. erectus and other similar forms |
| Oldowan = | early homo |
| Acheulean (Mode II) tools | 1.75MYA, bifaced hand axes and cleavers, more standardized, no innovation for over a million years (rarely found in Eastern Asia) |
| Olorgesailie, Kenya | Handaxe ground zero |
| Complex foraging strategies in modern humans | collected<extracted<hunted |
| Males overproduce food from around the ages of | 20-60 |
| Females overproduce food from around the ages of | 45-70 |
| Evidence for extraction w/ mode I tools | carcass butchering, digging sticks, termite extraction (bone tools) - Bed 1 |
| Taphonomic evidence for stone tools | cut marks from stone tools |
| Consequences of meat eating | Hypervitaminosis A (ER-1808); parasites (T. saginata and T. solium) |
| Evidence for fire | baked earth, burnt bone, and hearths (350KYA) |
| Shaky evidence for fire use amongst H. erectus has been argued for the site of... | Chesowanja - 1.3MYA (East Africa) |
| Whens the best evience of controlled fire usage? | 70KYA |
| Homebases at Olduvai dated to | around 1.9MYA (Olduvai stone circle unlikely to be home base) |
| Cave sites in the Trench of Atapuerca, Spain | Gran Dolina, Galeria, Sima del Elefante, and Cueva Peluda |
| Gran Dolina site - 850KYA; Juan Luis Arsuaga, Jose Maria Bermudezde Castro, and Eudald Carbonell | yeilded remains of H. antecessor and H. heidelbergensis |
| H. antececessor | 80 bone fragments representing 5-6 individuals; possible evidence of cannibalism (cutmarks on radius) |
| Sima de los Huesos (24-80 KYA) | 5,500 commingled bone fragments representing 24-80 H. heidelbergensis individuals (Elvis the pelvis & AT5 incus, stapes, and malleus) |
| Archaic Homo sapiens - 500-30KYA throughout the old world | Descendents of H. erectus; over 1000cc brains, heavily arched brow ridges, robust jaws, large teeth, still chinless, heavy nuchal torus on occipital bone |
| Homo neanderthalensis / H. s. neanderthalensis (250-30KYA) - Europe and Middle East | cold adapted form of archaic Homo sapiens; large nasal aperture, midface prognathism, robust, short and stocky build (hyper-polar) |
| Notable Neanderthal skeletons | Shanidar 1, La Ferrassie 1, Gibraltar 1 (1848)-Rock of Gilbraltar, La Chapelle aux Saints |
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