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AP Biology
Princeton Review Textbook
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Elements | Substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means, build biological molecules, form storage compounds, and cells |
| 92 | Number of natural elements |
| Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen | 96% mass of all living things are comprised of |
| Trace Elements | Required in very small quantities |
| Atoms | Smallest unit of element to retain its characteristic properties |
| Nucleus | Core of atom filled with protons, neutrons, electrons |
| Isotopes | Same number of protons, differ in neutrons |
| Compounds | Two or more individual elements combined in a fixed ratio, held together by chemical bonds |
| Chemical Reaction | Elements combine into different overall substance |
| Ionic Bond | One or more electrons are transferred from one atom to other |
| Nonpolar Covalent Bond | Electrons are shared between atoms equally |
| Polar Covalent Bond | Electrons are shared between atoms unequally |
| Water | Important substance in nature, two hydrogen joined to oxygen, electrons unequally shared |
| Hydrogen Bond | Weak chemical bond formed when hydrogen atom is covalently to electronegative atom (two) |
| Cohesive Forces | Water molecules have a strong tendency to stick together |
| Adhesive Forces | Water molecules stick to other substances |
| Surface Tension | Water molecules are stuck together |
| Acidic | Dissolving in water results in a lot of hydrogen ions |
| Basic | Dissolving in water results in a lot of hydroxide ions, slipper form |
| Organic Molecules | Molecules containing carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms |
| Macromolecules | Chains of building blocks, polymers |
| Monomers | Polymer's building blocks |
| Condensation | Form polymers where a water molecule is lost, also known as dehydration synthesis |
| Hydrolysis | Breaks polymers down to monomers, water breaks the bond |
| Carbohydrates | Organic compounds containing oxygen, ratio of 1:2:1 for carbon:hydrogen:oxygen |
| Monosaccharies | Simplest sugar, energy source for cell, examples are glucose and fructose, either ring or straight structure |
| Disaccharides | Two monosaccharides are brought together, hydrogen from one sugar combines with hydroxyl group, bonded together by a glycosidic linkage, broken by adding water |
| Maltose | A disaccharide formed by two glucose |
| Polysaccharides | Repeated units of monosaccharides, branched/unbranched chains |
| Proteins | Performs most work in cells, important for structure, function, and regulation of tissues and organs |
| Amino Acids | Building blocks of proteins, contain C,H,O, and N atoms, 20 different types commonly found, structure of 4 major parts |
| Amino Group | Nitrogen bonded to two hydrogens, -NH2, found in amino acids |
| Carboxyl Group | Carbon, oxygen, oxygen, hydrogen, -COOH, found in amino acids |
| Singular Hydrogen | Hydrogen, found in amino acids |
| R-Group | Differentiating factor, also known as the side chain, found in amino acids |
| Hydrophobic | Non-polar and uncharged |
| Hydrophilic | Polar and uncharged |
| Ionic | Polar and charged |
| Polypeptides | Group of amino acids joined together in a string, order affects overall shape of protein, end with amino group and carboxyl group |
| Peptide Bonds | Bonds between amino acids |
| Dipeptide Bonds | Specifically, bonds between two amino acids |
| Higher Protein Structure | Several changes before an official protein |
| Primary Structure | Linear sequence of amino acids |
| Secondary Structure | Polypeptide begins to twist, coil forms or zigzags |
| Alpha Helix | Caused when polypeptide twists and the coil forms |
| Beta-Pleated Sheets | Caused when polypeptide twists and the coil zigzags |
| Tertiary Structure | Amino acids far away in primary structure interact with each other, minimizes free energy, locking into stable 3D shape |
| Quaternary Structure | Several different polypeptide chains sometimes interact with each other, subunits come to form final protein |
| Chaperone Proteins | Help fold proteins properly, makes process efficient |
| Lipids | Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but no fixed ratio, are nonpolar structures function as components of cell membrane, source of insulation, signal molecules, means of energy storage |
| Triglycerides | Glycerol molecule with three fatty acid chains attached |
| Fatty Acid Chains | Long chain of carbons where each one is covered in hydrogen |
| Saturated | Hydrogen along its long carbon chain |
| Unsaturated | Double bond in the chain |
| Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid | Many double bonds |
| Saturated Fatty Acid | Linear molecules, solid at room temperature |
| Unsaturated Fatty Acid | Kinked liquid at room temperature |
| Phospholiids | Contain two fatty acid tails and one negatively charged phosphate head, tails are hydrophobic while head is hydrophilic, classified as amphipathic molecule |
| Amphipathic Molecule | Molecule that has hydrophobic and hydrophilic components |
| Cholesterol | Four-ringed molecule present in membranes, increases its fluidity, maintain structure at high temperatures, makes chromones and vitamin D |
| Nucleic Acid | Contains hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen as well as phosphorus |
| Nucleotides | Units of nucleic acids |
| Deoxyribonucleic Acid | DNA, hereditary blueprint of all life |
| Ribonucleic Acid | RNA, essential for protein synthesis |
| Living Things | Composed of cells |
| Cells | Life's basic unit of structure and function, smallest unit |
| Prokaryotic Cells | Inside is cytoplasm, genetic material is one continuous circular DNA model found in nucleoid, cell wall surrounds plasma membrane, contains ribosomes, can have 1+ flagella, thick capsule for extra protection |
| Eukaryotic Cells | Organized into many smaller structures, much more complex than prokaryotic, no membrane-bound organelles, only plasma membrane (fungi, protists, plants, animals) |
| Surface Area to Volume | Ration should be minimized to allow for efficient exchange of materials |
| Organelles | Smaller structures found in cells |
| Plasma Membrane | Outer envelop that is complex and doubled-layer in structure, composed mostly of phospholipids and proteins, hydrophobic tail faces inwards, hydrophilic head faces outward, regulates movement of substances in and out of cell, semipermeable |
| Fluid-Mosaic Model | Carbohydrate side chains are attached onto surface, layers of phospholipids are flexible and contain proteins, carbohydrate chains |
| Peripheral Proteins | Associated with lipid bilayer, located on inner and outer source of membrane |
| Integral Proteins | Firmly bound to plasma membrane, amphipathic, hydrophilic region extend into cytoplasm |
| Transmembrane Proteins | Extend all the way through membrane |
| Adhesion Proteins | In membrane, form junctions between adjacent cells |
| Receptor Proteins | Serve as docking sites for hormone arrivals |
| Transport Proteins | Form pumps that use ATP to actively transport solutes across membrane |
| Channel Proteins | Form channels that selectively allow passage of certain ions or molecules |
| cell surface Markers | Exposed on the extra cellular surface, play role in cell recognition and adhesion |
| Nucleus | Largest organelle, directs what goes on in cell and is responsible for cells ability to reproduce, home of hereditary in formation (DNA) organized into structures (chromosomes) |
| Nucleolus | rRNA is made here, ribosomes are assembled |
| Ribosomes | Sites of protein synthesis, manufactures all needed or secreted round structures, composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins, free floating or attached to ER |
| Endoplasmic Reticulum | Continuous channel extending into cytoplasm, provides mechanical support while also aiding in intracellular transport |
| Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum | Region attached to nucleus, studded with ribosomes, compartmentalizes the cell, proteins are built here and trafficked here, build Golgi, lysosomes, and ER |
| Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum | Lacks ribosomes, breaks down toxic chemicals, makes lipids, hormones, and steroids |
| Golgi Complex | Stacks of flattened sacs, process proteins, package final products in vesicles, production of lysosomes |
| Mitochondria | "Powerhouses" of the cell, convert energy from organic molecules into useful energy for cell, common energy molecule is ATP, unique oblong shape with a double membrane |
| Lysosomes | Sacs carrying digestive enzymes breaking down worn out organelles, debris, or large ingested particles, keeps cytoplasm clear of unwanted flotsam and recycling organic molecules, help apoptosis |
| Centrioles | Small, paired, cylindrical structures found within microtubule organizing centers, active during cell division producing microtubules pulling replicated chromosomes apart to opposite ends of cell, not plant cells |
| Vacuoles | Fluid-filled sacs which store water, food, waste, salt, or pigments, serve multiple functions in plants |
| Peroxisomes | Detoxify various substances, produce hydrogen peroxide with enzymes breaking down this into oxygen and water, found in animal liver and kidney cells |
| Cytoskeleton | Holds cell together to keep cell shape, determine by network of protein fibers |
| Microtubules | Made up of protein tubulin, participate in cellular division and movement, integral in centrioles, cilia, and flagella |
| Microfilaments | Important for movement, thin rod-like structures composed of actin, assist during cytokinesis, muscle contraction, and formation of pseudopodic extensions |
| Cilia and Flagella | Threadlike structures known for locomotive properties in single-celled organisms |
| Plant Cells | Have protective outer covering against osmotic changes (cell wall cellulose) which provides support for cell, possess chloroplasts, cytoplasm is actually a large central vacuole, do not contain centrioles |
| Facilitated Transport | Hydrophilic substance causes bilayer to not let pass through without assistance, depends on proteins which act as tunnels through the membrane |
| Channels | Specialized types of tunnels |
| Passive Transport | High concertation of something in one area diffuses into lower concertation, does not require outside energy to move |
| Simple Diffusion | Molecule is hydrophobic |
| Facilitated Diffusion | Requires help of channel-type protein |
| Osmosis | Water diffuses from high to low concentration, dilutes solute particles |
| Plasmolysis | Cell membrane shrinks away from wall if loss water, expands and squeezes against cell wall |
| Tonicity | Used to describe osmotic gradients |
| Isotonic | Solute concentration is same inside and outside |
| Hypertonic | More total dissolved solutes than the cell |
| Hypotonic | Less total dissolved solutes than the cell |
| Water Potential | Measures potential energy, describing eagerness of water flowing from area of high water potential to a low one, affected by pressure and solute potential |
| Solute Potential | Negative product of number of ions solute breaks up into, molar concentration of solute, pressure constant, and temperature in Kelvin |
| Active Transport | Moves from low to higher concentration, proteins in plasma membrane powered by ATP |
| Primary Active Transport | Happens when ATP is directly utilized |
| Secondary Active Transport | Energy captured from movement of another substance flowing down concentration gradient |
| Endocytosis | Particles too large to enter cell, portion of cell membrane engulfs substance by forming a pocket, pinching, and forming a vacuole/vesicle |
| Pinocytosis | Ingests liquid variation of endocytosis |
| Phagocytosis | Ingests solid variation of endocytosis |
| Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis | Involves cell surface receptors when performing endocytosis |
| Bulk Flow | One way movement of fluids due to pressure |
| Dialysis | Diffusion of solutes across selectively permeable membrane |
| Exocytosis | Large particles transported out of cell, ejected waste products by fusion of vesicle with plasma membrane, expels contents into cellular space |
| Bioenergetics | Study of how cells find ways to release energy in bonds or store it |
| First Law Thermo | Energy cannot be created or destroyed, therefore cell must harvest energy |
| Second Law Thermo | Energy transfer leads to less organization, universe tends towards disorder (entropy) |
| Exergonic Reaction | Products have less energy than reactants as it is given off during the reaction |
| Endergonic Reaction | Products have more energy than reactants, requires an input of energy |
| Transition State | High energy molecule that reactants must turn into, is a hybrid state of reactants-products that is difficult to achieve |
| Activation Energy | Certain amount of energy required to reach transition state, breaks down previous chemical bonds |
| Enzymes | Biological catalysts which speed up reactions by lowering activation energy and helping transition state to occur, does not change energy of reaction |
| Enzyme Specificity | Enzyme catalyzes only one kind of reaction, named after specific molecule they target |
| Substrates | Molecules that enzyme is targeting, many named by replacing suffix with -ase |
| Active Site | Special region on the enzyme where it helps substrate get to position |
| Enzyme-Substrate Complex | Binds one or more substrates, afterwards enzyme goes back to its original state |
| Induced-Fit | Enzymes and substrates do not fit together seamlessly, as enzyme has to slightly changes its shape to accommodate the substrate shape |
| Cofactors | Either organic (coenzymes) or inorganic (metal ions) that help enzyme fit into a substrate |
| Temperature for Enzymes | Rate of a reaction generally increases with this up to a point, once point is reached it can be damaged losing its shape and inactivated |
| pH for Enzymes | Function best at a optimal near 7, some operate better at more acidic levels |
| Relative Concentration for Enzymes | Both this factor for substrates and products matter, increase will speed up reaction until saturation point is reached |
| Enzyme Regulation | Cells control enzymes by influencing their shape |
| Competitive Inhibition | Substance similar in shape can block substrate, can be overcome by flooding the substrate |
| Noncompetitive Inhibition | Inhibitors binding to an allosteric side, allows substrate to reach active state, however could distort enzyme shape preventing it from functioning |
| Adenosine Triphosphate | A + P (3), best source of energy (located in its phosphate bonds) as it is easy to form and breaking only one bond |
| Photosynthesis | Light energy is converted to chemical energy (6co2 + 6h2o --> c6h12o6 + 6o2) |
| Prokaryotic Photosynthesis | Contributed to oxygen production in atmosphere, laid the foundation for eukaryotic photosynthesis |
| Initialization of Photosynthesis | Photons of sunlight strike surface of plant, activates chlorophyll while also exciting electrons |
| Chloroplast | Primary site of photosynthesis |
| Stroma | Fluid-filled region found in chloroplasts, hydrogen ions move here through ATP synthase, producing more ATP |
| Grana | Structures like a stack of coins found in chloroplasts |
| Thylakoids | Individual disks of the grana that contain chlorophyll |
| Light-Absorbing Pigments | Chlorophyll a, b, and carotenoids clustered in thylakoid membrane in units, gather light and bound energy to reaction center |
| Photosystem I | Reaction center in the chloroplast, chlorophyll a absorbs wavelength of light at 700 nm, electrons travel here through a second electron transport chain |
| Photosystem II | Reaction center in the chloroplast, chlorophyll a absorbs wavelength of light at 680 nm, energy sent here as activated electrons are trapped before passed to primary acceptor and carriers in electron transport chain |
| Photophosphyorylation | Light energy used to make ATP |
| Absorption Spectrum | Shows how well certain pigment absorbs electromagnetic radiation |
| Emission Spectrum | Gives information on which wavelengths are emitted by pigments |
| Photolysis | Electrons are replaced in the thylakoid (water split into oxygen, hydrogen ions, and electrons) |
| Thylakoid Lumen | Energized electrons travel down ETC, pumps hydrogen ions here, establishing a protein gradient |
| NADP+ | Final electron acceptor of light-dependent reactions, producing NADPH |
| Linear Electron Flow | Most plants follow this simple procedure |
| Cyclic Electron Flow | Generates only ATP, taking place only at Photosystem I |
| Light-Independent Reactions | Also known as the Calvin-Benson Cycle, uses light-dependent reactions to make sugar, occurring in the stroma, 3co2, 9atp, 6nadph are used to form sugar |
| Carbon Fixation | CO2 from air is converted to carbohydrates |
| Photorespiration | Wasteful process using ATP and o2 to produce more co2, no sugars |
| Cellular Respiration | Sugar + oxygen are converted to carbon dioxide + water + energy (c6h12o6 + 6o2 --> 6co2 + 6h2o + ATP) |
| Aerobic Respiration | Creating ATP with oxygen |
| Anaerobic Respiration | Creating ATP without oxygen, only glycolysis occurs producing 2 ATP, pyruvates help NADH recycle into NAD_ but take its electrons, are stored as lactic acid / ethanol (fermentation) |
| Glycolysis | Splitting of glucose into pyruvic acid in the cytoplasm, net energy of 2 ATP (4 total), production of 2 NADH (from 2 NAD+), 2 pyruvic acid |
| Acetyl-CoA | Transport to mitochondria and converted to acetyl-coenzyme A releasing CO2 |
| Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex | Acetyl-CoA is catalyzed by this enzyme |
| Krebs Cycle | Occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria, carbons are converted to CO2, acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to create citric acid, producing 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2 |
| Oxidative Phosphorylation | Electrons given up and ADP is used to make ATP |
| Electron Transport Chain | 12 electron carries (10 NADH, 2 FADH2) shuttle electrons and are later recycled, splitting hydrogen, electrons pass down protein carrier molecules embedded in the cristae, reaching final acceptor allowing oxygen to form water |
| Chemiosmosis | Energy released from ETC pumps hydrogen ions into intermembrane creating a pH/proton gradient, pumping and diffusing ions to produce ATP |
| NADH Glycolysis | 1.5 ATP, other NADH is converted to 2.5 ATP, FADH2 is 1.5 ATP |
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