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Biology Final HOnors
cards
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| stimulus | anything that causes a response |
| what does a bell-shaped curve represent? | developing countries |
| evolve | change over a long period of time |
| living things | show organization |
| magnification | increase of an objects apparent size |
| power of magnification | in a microscope, the factor of enlargement |
| sexual reproduction | the production of offspring from the combination of genetic material from two parent organisms |
| carbon cycle | co2 is processed and cycled |
| permafrost | permanately frozen layer of soil underneath surface |
| what is homeostasis? | which the body maintains internal functions |
| specialists | species containing narrow niches |
| mass extinction | sharp decrease of number of species in short time period |
| biomass | organic material in ecosystem |
| community | all the interacting organisms living in an area |
| what does an ecosystem include? | all non-living (physical/chemical) aspects influencing organisms |
| main acid produced in atmosphere causing acid rain? | h2so4 |
| what does a tolerance curve show about an organism? | shows organisms comfort zone, how it adapts |
| how have animals been eliminated? | habitat destruction, overhunting, and new diseases/predatorsmass extinctions |
| how does competition result from? | use of same limited resource from two or more species |
| secondary compounds | synthesize chemicals from metabolism productspoisonous, irritating, and bad tasting |
| what is a consequence of species-area effect? | reducing habitat size, reduces speices size |
| what is matter? | takes up space while having mass |
| catabolism | breaking down of chemical reactions |
| base unit | one of seven fundamental units of SI measurement that describes length, mass, time, and other quantities |
| how does growth occur? | cell division and enlargement |
| gene | a segment of DNA that contains coding for a polypeptide or protein, a unit of heredity information |
| natural selection | the process by which organisms with favorable variations reproduce at higher rates than those without such variations |
| cells are | smallest unit of organism carrying out functions of life |
| name three types of plastids | 1. choroplasts2. leucoplasts3. chromoplasts |
| what enzyme may digest proteins, carbs, lipids, dna, and rna? | lysosomes |
| what is a trophic level? | a feeding level |
| survivorship curve | graph of species mortality-rate data |
| what does a predators survival depend on | ability to capture food |
| microfilaments are made up of what? | actin protein |
| how does growth occur? | adaptation and evolution |
| what directs all cellular activities? | nucleus |
| what is competitive exclusion? | 1 species eliminated from community by competition for the same resource1 species used the resource more effictivelyreproductive advantage |
| where is the cell wall located? | cell membrane |
| photosynthesis | the conversino of light energy into chemical energy stored in organic compounds |
| what is a gene? | section of dna molecule that contains a protein |
| biosphere | the thin volume of Earth and its atomosphere supporting life; broadest level of organization |
| what is a plant cell wall made up of? | cellulose |
| what do lysosomes help break down? | food molecules |
| density-independent factor | reduce population in small proportions regardless of population size |
| what is dissolved oxygen? | oxygen is dissolved in water in environment |
| conformer | organisms that don't regulate their internal conditions; change as external environment changes |
| this processes materials/ oves them around cell | endoplasmic reticulum |
| age structure | distribution of animals from different ages |
| what type of charge does a neutron have | neutral |
| unicellular | made up of only one cell |
| multicellular | organism made up of more than one cell |
| what is biology? | study of life |
| pioneer species | species predominating early in succession |
| all organisms are made up of how many cells? | one or more |
| are ribosomes surrounded by a membrane? | no |
| three characteristics of a population | 1. size2. density3. dispersion |
| emigration | movement of an organism out of a population |
| carrying capacity | the number of individuals the environment can support over a long period of time |
| species diversity | number of speices in a community in relation to relative abundance of each species |
| small holes in the nuclear envelope | nuclear pores |
| mimicry | species resembles a poisonous/distasteful species |
| osmosis | when water molecules diffuse across cell membrane from higher concentration to lower concentration |
| what type of cell has a cell wall? | plant |
| what does the rough er do to its proteins? | folds them |
| living things display what? | organization |
| 2 ways the population size may be calculated | 1. count number of individuals2. estimate individual number |
| dispersion patterns | how organisms distribute themselves in a population |
| emigration | movement of individuals out of a population |
| objective lens | poisitioned directly above the specimen; enlarges specimens image |
| why is the thinning of the ozone layer | 1% of UV radiation unto surfacecauses sunburns and skin cancer |
| exponential growth | model of population growth whereas birth and death rates are constant |
| size of populations | b-d+i-e |
| food chain | feeding relationships among organisms resulting in energy transfer |
| catabolism | breaking down of chemical reactions |
| name 6 environmental problems | 1. acid rain2. air/water pollution3. global warming4. greenhouse effect5. mass extinction6. rising human populations |
| what does a species niche involve? | range of conditions in tolerance rangemethods in which organism obtains resourcesnumber of offspring/environmental interaction |
| why do scientists generally use models? | have predictions about future behavoirs/observations from worldplan/evaluate solutions |
| condition caused by overabundance of gases in atmosphere, keeping heat energy | global climate change |
| realized niche | range of resources a species actually uses |
| what type of environment do plants live in ? | hypotonic |
| abiotic | non-living |
| what is a variable? | any factor that changes an outcome |
| isotonic | when concentration of solutes in/out of cell are equal |
| 1st property of facilitated diffusion | help substance move into/out of celldepends on concentration gradient |
| 7 is what on a ph scale? | neutral |
| what type of charge does an electron have | negative |
| what type of charge does a proton have? | positive |
| cell | smallest capable unit of life functions |
| growth rate | number per unit time |
| hypertonic | concentration of solute molecules is higher than concentration of solute |
| population | 2 or more members of a species in an area per unit time |
| dormancy | reducing activity during environmental conditions |
| niche | species way of life; role a species plays in its environment |
| 2 problems encountered as exponential increase in humans | sixth mass extinctionglobal warming |
| what is an organisms habitat? | where an organism lives |
| biotic factor | the living components of the environment |
| life science is the study of what? | living things |
| ecology | study of organisms and how they interact with their environment and each other |
| what is the atomic mass? | number of protons and the number of neutrons |
| what are the two growth curves? | logistical and exponential |
| what is dispersion? | the spatial distribution of individuals within a population |
| heterotroph | an organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other oragnisms or their by-product |
| mating with relatives | inbreeding |
| i = | immigration |
| dormancy | enter a state of reduced activity during long periods of bad conditions |
| chromosome | coiled up chromatin, densly packed |
| cell wall | tough, rigid covering; giving cell its shape |
| decomposer | break down complex molecules to dead tissues into noncomplex molecules |
| what is mutualism? | both species benefitsome species cannot survive without the other |
| regulates interactions between cell and its environment | cell membrane |
| nuclear envelope | double envelope surrounding nucleous |
| anabolism | building up of chemical reactions |
| deaths | d |
| dispersion | spatial distribution of individuals within a population |
| the ozone layer in the atmosphere is diminishing most over | antarctica |
| why do organisms require energy? | maintains molecular and cellular organization |
| competition | 1 organism vies for the basic resources for other organisms |
| in a one-celled organism growth is due to the cells increase in | size |
| protects a cell and gives it its shape | cell wall |
| what must be lost for water temperature? | heat |
| name the three states of matter | solid, liquid, gas |
| density | amount of stuff per unit area |
| where is the cytoskeleton located? | cytosol |
| ecology | the study of organisms and how they interact with their environment and each other |
| this stores fluid filled organelles storing enzymes, metabolic wastes | vacuoles |
| what chemicals are destroying the ozone? | chloroflurocarbons cfc'sindusturial chemicals |
| main gas contributing to global climate change? | co2 |
| what is biomass? | amount of organic material in an area |
| urn-shaped graph represents | stable countries |
| living things do these two things? | grow and reproduce |
| data | include any and all information that scientists gather in trying to answer their questions |
| evolution by natural selection | driven by competiion amoung individualsdifferences in species = reproduction differs |
| model | an explanation supported by datamay be visual,verbal,mathematical may help generate new predictions |
| multicellular organism | a living thing that consits of more than one cell |
| homeostasis | the stable internal conditions of a living thing |
| biogeochemical cycle | 3 main cycles moving the environment from the atomosphere |
| autotroph | organisms that trap and use energy from the sun |
| species | group of same type of organism that can mate producing fertile offspring |
| conformers | don't regulate internal conditionschange as environment does |
| contractile vacuole | organelles removing excess water pumping water out of the cellcells expand energy |
| turgor pressure | pressure water molecules exert aganist cell wall |
| regulator | organisms using energy to control some of their internal conditions |
| how have humans affected atomospheres condition? | humans burn fossil fuels burned providing energy producing co2 |
| why has environmental knowledge been important to humans back then and today? | humans understand how to survive/suvival of specieshumans change earth rapidly/global scale |
| secondary gas contributing to global climate change? | so2 |
| how many mass extincitons are there | 6 |
| character displacement | natural selection= potential competitors when range overlaps |
| what does predation influence? | where and how a species lives |
| 2nd property of facilitated diffusion | carrier proteins involved in facilitated diffusion each specific for molecule type |
| what is photosynthesis? | autotrophs trap light energy and tuck into food molecule for storage |
| most ribosomes are made where? | nucleus |
| autotrophs | make own foodmay use chemical processes |
| sampling | the techmnique of using a sample, a small part, to represent an entire population |
| asexual reproduction | the production of offspring that does not involve the union of gametes |
| ecology | the study of the relationship between organisms and their environment |
| what do prokaryotic cells lack? | membrane-bound structure |
| waht does the mitochondria break down? | glucose |
| what are the inner membranes of the mitochondria called? | cristae |
| what does the law of conservation of matter and energy state? | energy cannot be created or destroyedenergy may change forms |
| differenc between environmental and fundamental niche | fundamental is the range of resources a species may toleraterealized is the range of resources a species actually uses |
| one species is harmed while the other benefits | parasitism |
| gradual regrowth of species in an area | succession |
| unit for population density | number of individuals per unit area or volume |
| use light energy to make a sugar | chloroplast |
| how do scientists calculate species diversity? | measure/estimate population size of all species in a community |
| organism feeding on other organism | parasite |
| proteins are needed for | chemical reactions |
| inference | a conclusion based on the basis of factors or premises rather than on direct observations |
| ecosystem | all the organisms and non-living environment and each other |
| burning of fossil fuels causes | pollution |
| what type of change is the melting of lead | chemical |
| stimuli belongs to what | living things |
| ion channels | provide small passegways across cell membranes in which ions diffuse |
| equilibrium | concentration of molecules in substance sam throughout a space |
| carrier proteins | proteins assissting in molecule movement across cell membrane |
| fundamental niche | range species may tolerate |
| what is the main cause of global climate change? | rising of temperatures |
| what are the 3 main parts of a seed? | cotlyedon, embryo, seed coating |
| interconnnectedness | organisms adapt with their environment |
| where are ribosomes synthesized/assembled in nuclear pores | nucleolous |
| what is respiration | breaking down food molecule releasing energy |
| what do most cell life processes occur | cytoplasm |
| species | group of same type organism that can mate producing fertile offspring |
| ectoparasites | live on host, do not enter the hosts body |
| chemosynthesis | produce carbohydrates using energy from inorganic substances |
| homologous chromosomes | 2 copies of autosomesame sizesame shapegenes for same trait |
| autosomes | 44 chromosomes in humanall other chromosomes besides sex chromosomes |
| sex chromosomes | determine organisms sex carry genes for other characteristics |
| how many chromosomes do humans have? | 46 chromosomes |
| why does dna uncoil between cell divisions | can be readinfo may be used to direct activities of cell |
| centromere | middle of dividing chromosomesholds chromosomes together until cell division |
| chromatid | half of a chromosome |
| what are nonhistones? | control activity of specific regions of dna |
| how do histones help dna? | maintain chromosomes shapeaid in tight packing of dna molecules |
| what are histones? | dna in eukaryotic cells wrap around proteins |
| what are chromosomes? | rod-shaped structures made of dna and proteins |
| what is meiosis? | nuclear division reducing chromosme number in new cells to half the number in normal cells |
| what is synapsis? | pairing of homologous chromosomes |
| does synapsis occur in mitosis? | no |
| what is synapsis called? | tetrad |
| what does the process of crossing-over entail? | chromatids break off/ attach to adajcent chromosomes |
| What does crossing-over result in? | genetic recombination- new genetic material |
| when may meiosis 2 occur? | during meiosis 1 or copying of dna |
| what are 4 haploid cells called? | spermatids |
| what is the production of mature egg cells called | oogenesis |
| haploid cells | human sperm/egg cells1 set of chromosomes |
| binary fission | prokaryotic cell- 2 offspringcell has identical chromosomescopy original cell's chromosomes |
| what is mitosis? | new cells with genetic material identical to original cellreproduction in unicellular organisms |
| karyotype | photomicrograph of chromosomes in human dividing cell |
| transmission electron microscope | a microscope that transmits a beam of electrons rather than light through a thinly sliced specimen |
| independent variable | an experimentally manipulated variable |
| compound light microscope | an instrument that magnifies small objects so they can be seen easily using two or more lenses |
| cell division | the formation of two cells from an existing cell |
| control group | in an experiment, a group or individual that serves as a standard of comparison with another group or individual to which it is identical except for one factor |
| resolution | the power of a microscope to show detail |
| what are the six themes of biology? | cell structure and functionhomeostasisreproductionevolutioninterdependence of organismsmatter, energy and organization |
| electron microscope | an instrument that uses a beam of electrons rather than a beam of light to enlarge the object of an extermly small object so that it can be seen |
| controlled experiment | a test of variables using a comparison of a control group with an experimental group |
| differentiation | a process in whcih the cells of a multicellular individula become specialized during development |
| what cannot sem's and tem's do? | they cannot view living organisms |
| dependent variable | the responding variable in an experiment |
| scanning electron microscope | a microscope that produces an enlarged image of the surface of an object with a beam of electrons rather than light |
| gas primary productivity | rate at which producers capture energy |
| how is water a solvent? | able to dissolve ions and polar molecules |
| the hydrogen bond can only form between what molecules? | charged |
| what are secondary bonds? | attraction between two molecules |
| h2o has the second highest what? | electronegativity |
| what is the first simpliest organic compound? | methane |
| what is a chemical bond? | force of attraction between two atoms |
| what are the basic building blocks of matter? | elenebts |
| what is differentiation? | process by which cells develp different characteristics |
| what is capallarity in water mean? | water is able to go through porus paper |
| adhesive | holding together of unlike substances |
| what is a primary bond? | bond between atoms forming compound to become stable |
| cohesive | holding together of like substances |
| radioactivity | atoms throw off particles/ energy trying to become more stable |
| non-polar bond | equal sharingnot charged |
| electronegativity | affinity of atom to attract electrons |
| polar bond | partially chargedequal sharing |
| how do cell membranes maintain homeostasis? | controlling what substances enter/ leave the cell |
| concentration gradient | difference of concentration of molecules |
| how can a molecule diffuse across a cell membrane? | depending on size/ type of molecule |
| how may molecules not soluble in lipids diffuse across membrane? | moving through pores in membrane |
| what does the net direction of osmosis depend on ? | relative concentration of solutes on two sides of membrane |
| multicellular organisms are mostly what | isotonic |
| cytolysis | cells burstwater diffueses into cells, causing them to swell, eventually burst |
| plasmolysis | cells shrink away from the cell wallreason plants don't recieve enough water |
| unicellular organisms are mainly what | hypotonic |
| acclimation | adjust tolerance to abiotic factors within lifetime |
| regulators | control some internal conditions |
| gause's principal | no two organisms of a species can exist in the same place at the same time using the same resources |
| biotic potential | optimium number of offspring a female species could possibly produce |
| environmental resistance | keeps population from growing at birth potential |
| what are all cell membranes made up of? | lipids and proteins |
| mitochondria | organelle located throughout cytosolsite of many chemical reactions |
| rough endoplasmic reticulum | covered with ribosomes viewed by electron microscopeprominent in cells with high protein amounts |
| fluid mosaic model | used to describe cell membrane structurerepresenting nature of membrane lipids and proteins |
| perpheral protein | located on both inner and outer surface of cell membranelinked by weak bonds |
| smooth endoplasmic reticulum | covered with ribosomes smooth appearenceregulates calcium in muscle cellsbreaks down toxic substances |
| spindle fibers | bundles of microtubles thick enough to see with light microscopeassist in movement of chromosomes |
| cristae | in inner membrane location in innner foldsenlarge surface area for enough space for chemical reaction |
| Define Adaptation | trait that has been acquired over a long period of time |
| What is an organism? | living thing |
| How are cells highly organized? | have specialized structures carrying out life processes |
| How are cells similiar? | surrounded by a membranecontain set of instructions necessary for making new parts |
| gene | short segement of DNA containing instructions for a trait |
| Why do organisms need energy? | maintain their organizationgrow and reproduce |
| cell division | formation of two cells from an existing cell |
| What must a scientific sample be? | large and random |
| How is a statement testable? | if evidence collected does or does not support the hypothesis |
| dependent variable | driven by results of independent variable |
| how do you analyze data? | determine wheither the data was reliablewheither data supported or did not support the hypothesis |
| Is an inference testable? | no |
| Why do biologists use microscopes? | enable to study organisms, cells and cell parts not visable to the naked eye |
| element | pure substance that may not be broken down chemically |
| compound | pure substance made up of atoms of two or more elements |
| atom | smallest portion of an element that is still that element |
| molecule | simplest part of substance retaining all properties of the substance in its free state |
| chemical bond | force of attraction between two atoms |
| covalent bond | the sharing of electrons |
| non-polar covalent bond | totally equal sharing of electronsbond is not charged |
| polar covalent bond | equal sharing of electronsbond is charged |
| ionic bond | forms ionstransfer of electrons from 1 atom to another |
| hydrogen bond | only forms between charged moleculesweak bond |
| energy | ability to do work |
| acid | 0-7 on ph scaleproduces H ions in solution |
| Base | 8-14 on ph scale |
| ph scale | measures wheither a solution is an acid or a base |
| matter | anything that takes up space and has mass |
| mass | quantity of matter an object contains |
| how many elements have been identified | more than 100 |
| what are the main 4 elements | oxygen Ocarbon Chydrogen Hnitrogen N |
| what does a chemical symbol consist of? | one or two letters, resembling a chemical symbol |
| What do the different types of atoms determine? | the structure and properties of matter composed |
| What two particles does the nucleus consist of? | protons and neutrons |
| Where does the atomic number appear on the chemical symbol? | atop the chemical symbol |
| Where is the most energy consumed in an energy level? | outermost level |
| how many electrons can the first energy level hold? | two |
| how many electrons can the second energy level hold? | eight |
| when is an atom chemically stable? | when its outermost energy level is filled |
| chemical reactions | combining of atoms in which the atoms become stable |
| chemical bond | attachment of atoms |
| free energy | energy in a system available to do work |
| where are the reactants shown on a chemical equation? | left side |
| where are the products shown on a chemical equation? | right side |
| exergonic reactions | chemical reactions involving the release of energy |
| endergonic reactions | chemical reactions involving the net absorption of free energy |
| activation energy | amount of energy needed to start a chemical reaction |
| catalyst | chemical substance reducing the amount of activation energy needed for a reaction |
| enzyme | catalysts in living things |
| redox reactions | reactions in which electrons are transferred between atoms |
| oxidation reaction | reactant loses one or more electrons, giving it a positive charge |
| reduction reaction | reactant gains one or more electrons, giving it a negative charge |
| solution | mixture whereas one or more substances are uniformly distributed in another substance |
| solute | substance in which the solution is dissolved |
| solvent | substance in which the solute is dissolved |
| concentration of a solution | measurement of the amount of solute dissolved in a fixed amount of a solution |
| saturated solution | solution in which no more solute may be dissolved |
| aqueous solutions | solutions in which water is the solvent |
| dissociation | breaking apart of the water molecule from two ions of opposite charge |
| buffer | chemical substance neutralizing small amounts of either an acid or base that was added |
| cohesion | holding together of molecules |
| adhesion of molecules | holding together of different substances |
| capillarity | ability for water to go through porus paper |
| name four organic compounds | nucleic acidslipidsproteinscarbohydrates |
| polymer | chain/unit of contonious molecules |
| monomer | 1 unit of the repeating molecule |
| monosaccharide | made up of 1 base which is glucose |
| two examples of monosaccharides | ribosefructose |
| disaccharide | made up of two bases (glucose), two sugars |
| 2 examples of disaccharides | sucroselactose |
| polysacchride | made up of hundreds/thousands of bases, sugars |
| 3 examples of polysacchrides | cellulosestarchglycogen |
| what is an enzyme's purpose? | breaks down substrates and reactions into simpler molecules |
| what type of compound is water? | polar |
| organic compounds | contain carbon atoms covalently bonding to other carbon atoms |
| how many bonds may carbon form? | four |
| what may carbon bond with that other elements cannot? | itself |
| functional groups | clusters of atoms influencing properties of molecules |
| carbohydrates | organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygenhydrogen is the most numerous |
| prokaryotic cell | lacks cellular-membrane structure (nucleus) |
| eukaryotic cell | contains membrane bound nucleus |
| cell theory | 1. cells contain a unit of structure2. cells are the main function in an organism3. cells originate from other cells |
| what is the structure of the cell-membrane | semi-permeable |
| nucleus | controls all cellular functions |
| cell membrane | regulates what goes into and out of the cell |
| cytoplasm | contains various organelles |
| mitochondria | breaks down materials, releasing energy |
| ribosomes | makes the proteins |
| rer | folds the proteins |
| lysosome | digests enzymes, food, and foreign matter such as the white blood cell |
| chloroplast | contains cholorophyll, giving plants the green colorhas a double membrane |
| vacuoles | found in plant cellsstore enzymes and wasteskeeps away toxins |
| cell wall | only found in plant cellssupports the cell (rigid) |
| Who first discovered plant cells? | Robert Hooke |
| Who first observed living cells? | Anton van Leeuwenhoek |
| what is unique about the nerve cell? | long extensions enabling it to recieve and transmit impulese |
| why are cells limited in size? | ration of outer surface area to volume |
| why is volume to surface area ratio important in cells? | the higher the volume, the less surface arealower surface area and the cell will not be able to recieve the necessary amounts of nutrients |
| what is unique about dead skin cells? | cover the bodies surface |
| what is unique about the white blood cells? | change shape, leave blood, enter blood vesselsmove through narrow openings destroying bacteria |
| organelles | cells internal structures |
| does mitochrondria have its own dna? | yes |
| what are ribosomes made up of ? | protein and rna |
| what is the main function of the endoplasmic reticulum | interstate highway, path which molecules move from one area to the next |
| diffusion | movement of molecules from high to low concentration until equilibrium is reacheddoesn't require energy |
| facilitated diffusion | helps molecules diffuse (size/shape) from high to low concentration |
| osmosis | movement of h20 molecules from high to low concentration |
| iso | equal |
| isotonic | equal amounts of water in solute and solvent |
| hypo | under |
| hypotonic | less water in solute than in solution |
| hyper | more than |
| hypertonic | more water in solute than in solvent |
| plasmolysis | cells shrink away from the cell wall, losing turgor pressure |
| contractile vacuoles | keep excess amounts of water out of cell so that the cell will not burst |
| concentration gradient | difference in concentration molecules in a space |
| in which molecules move in their concentration gradient/ | down |
| turgor pressure | pressure the water molecules exert aganist the cell wall |
| cytolysis | bursting of ceclls due to water diffusing in a hypotonic environment |
| vesicle | pouch pinching off from cell membrane becoming organelle |
| endocytosis | cells ingest external fluids forming vesicles |
| pinocytosis | transport of solutes or liquids |
| phagocytosis | movement of large particles or whole cells |
| phagocytes | cells allowing lysosomes to fuse with vesicles contain ingested bacterial and viruses |
| exocytosis | vesicles form whereas they leave the cell membrane |
| photosynthesis | packing of carbon by autotrophs into food molecules for later use |
| what is the purpose of photoysnthesis | keep plant with enough molecules for times when there isn't enough sun |
| respiration | breaking down of the food molecules, releasing the energy |
| what is the purpose of respiration? | makes the protein in ATP, supplying the cell with energy |
| chromosome structure | rod shaped with dna and proteins |
| how many haploid cells does a human have? | 23 |
| the stages of the cell cycle are | interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis |
| histones | dna in eukaryotic cells wrapping tightly around proteins |
| nonhistones | involved in controlling the activity of specific regions of dna |
| chromatid | half of a chromosome |
| how do chromatids form? | as dna makes a copy before cell division |
| centromere | the section of the cell holding together the section of chromatid |
| sex chromosomes | determine organisms sex, while carrying genes for other traits |
| autosomes | all other chromosomes besides the sex chromosomes |
| homologous chromosomes | two copies of a chromosome |
| how are homologous chromosomes alike? | same size and shape along with the same genes |
| karyotype | photomicrograph of chromosomes in dividing cell in a normal cell |
| diploid | cells having two sets of chromosomes |
| haploid | human sperm and egg cells |
| how many cells do haploids have? | half the number of chromosomes in diploid cells |
| mitosis | new cells with genetic information identical to first cell |
| where does mitosis occur? | in body cells, somatic |
| meiosis | reduces the chromosome number in halfgamete cells |
| cell cycle | repeating events making up the life of a cell |
| interphase | time between cell divisiondivided into two phases |
| g1 phase | first stage of interphaseoffspring grows to mature size |
| s phase | dna of cell is copied |
| g2 phase | represents time gap between s phase and cell division |
| what occurs in the g0 phase? | cells don't copy their dna and do not prepare for cell division |
| prophase | 1st stage of mitosis |
| gregor mendel and his pea plants | contrasted the genetics of pea plants using statistics |
| rule of heredity | traits that are masked are dominanttraits that are controlled are recessive |
| law of segregation | pair of gametes is seprated during meiosis randomly |
| law of independent assortment | factors for different gene traits are random |
| monohybrid cross | 1 pair of traits is crossed genetically |
| where did gregor mendel originate? | monostary in Austria |
| heredity | transmission of characteristics from parent to offspring |
| traits | different characteristics of an organism |
| pollination | pollen grains produced in male reproductive parts of flower are transferred to female reproductive part |
| anthers | male reproductive part of flower |
| stigma | female reproductive part of flower |
| self-pollination | when pollen is transferred from anthers of flower to stigma of either flower |
| cross-pollination | involves flowers of two seperate pea plants |
| pure | trait always producing the offspring with the specific trait |
| p1 generation | first parental generation |
| strain | pea plants pure for a specific trait |
| f1 generation | offspring of the first generation |
| f2 genertaion | offspring of the second generation |
| molecular genetics | study of the structure and function of the chromosomes and the genes |
| allele | alternative forms of a trait |
| genotype | genetic information of a gene |
| what does the genotype consist of? | alleles that an organism can inherit from the parents |
| phenotype | appearence of an organism because of its genotype |
| homozygous | both alleles of a gene are the same |
| heterozygous | alleles of a gene are different throughout the chromosome |
| punnet square | diagram used to show what may occur next in the genetic offspring |
| genotypic ratio | ratio in genotypes |
| phenotypic ratio | ratio of phenotypes |
| testcross | cross an individual unknown genotype crossed with the individual |
| complete dominance | one allele is completely dominant over the other |
| incomplete dominance | two or more alleles influence the phenotype, resulting in a phenotype intermediate |
| codominance | both alleles for a gene are expressed as heterzygous |
| dihybrid cross | cross between individuals with two traits |
| what is the structure of dna? | double helix |
| what are dna made up of ? | purines and pyramidines |
| purpose of dna molecules | for genetics and traits |
| why is dna replication necessary? | each offspring may have the same traits of the parent |
| when does dna replication occur? | mitosis |
| what is the structure of the rna? | single helix |
| what type of sugar does dna have? | deoxyribose |
| what type of sugar does rna have? | ribose |
| what is the function of mrna? | messenger rnacarries the protein sequences |
| what is the function of trna? | transfer rnatransfers amino acids |
| what is the function of rrna? | ribosomal rnamakes the ribosomes |
| what is the purpose of transcription? | copying the specific rna molecules in the cytosol |
| what is the purpose of translation? | assembles polypeptides for mrna (amino acids) |
| what four nitrogen containing bases may be found in dna? | adnine, guanine, cytosine, thymine |
| purine | two rings of carbonadnine and guanine |
| pyramidine | three rings of carboncytosine and thymine |
| what bases bond with eachother in dna? | adenine bonds with thyminecytosine bonds with guanine |
| who discovered the structure of dna? | francis crick and James Watson |
| how are the bases paired? | hydrogen bonds |
| replication | the process of copying dna in a cell |
| what is the replication fork? | the area at which the two dna chains seperate |
| what is a helicase? | enzyme seperating the dna chains for replication |
| mutation | change in a nucleotide sequence |
| what is the change in the bases for rna? | thymine changes to uracil |
| what is rna polymerase? | primary transcription enzymesynthesizes specific sequences of dna |
| promoters | marks beginning of dna chain that will then be transcribed |
| termination signal | specific sequence of nucleotides marking the end of a gene in eukaryotes and functional genes (only a few) |
| protein synthesis | the production of proteins |
| genetic code | sequence of amino acids used to create proteins |
| codon | three mrna nucleotides sequence |
| start codon | codes for amino acid methioninestarts translationg mrna nucleotides |
| stop codon | causes the ribosomes to stop translating mrna |
| anticodon | opposite original amino acid sequence of three nucleotides |
| sex-linked inheritance traits | traits passed on by the parents hereditary |
| why are sex linked traits different from regular genetic traits? | sex linked traits contain the x and y chromosomes |
| what can cause a mutation? | change in the dna during a replication |
| gene mutation | involves segments of dna or 1 nucleotide |
| nondisjunction | gamete has extra chromosomes while 1 gamete lacks all of its chromosomes |
| germ cell mutation | in gametes, doesn't affect the organism only the offspring |
| somatic cell mutation | in body cells, effects the organism not the offspring |
| evolve | change over a long period of time |
| LaMarck's Theory of Acquired traits | organisms share many traits, not determined by the genes |
| when did charles darwin live? | 1800's |
| in what country did charles darwin live? | britain |
| darwin's natural selection | animals that survive by competing in an environment will live, but must reproduce |
| homolgous structures | similar features, same ancestor |
| analogous structure | serve identical functions, appear to be alike |
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