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Diges, Bld, Exo, End
Histology Questions Digestive, Blood, Exo and Endocrine Glands
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is the overall function of the digest system? | Converts food into raw materials that help build and fuel our body's cells. |
| What are the two essential ingredients involved in metabolism? | 1. Oxygen2. Organic Molecules |
| What are the components of the digestive system? | 1. Alimentary Canal2. Accessory Organs (teeth, tongue, gallbladder, liver, salivary glands, pancreas) |
| List and describe the four basic layers of the alimentary canal. | 1. Mucosa 2. Submucosa 3. Muscularis Externa4. Serosa |
| Mucosa | The epithelium that lines the alimentary canal, the deeper loose connective tissue called lamina propria, and the muscularis mucosae that surrounds the CT. |
| Submucosa | Dense, irregular fibroelastic CT surrounding the mucosa. |
| Muscularis Externa | Surrounds the submucosa. Thick muscular layer that is responsible for peristalsis. Smooth muscle. |
| Serosa | Surrounds muscularis externa and is made up of thin connective tissue. |
| List and describe six essential activities involved in digestion. | 1. Ingestion 2. Propulsion 3. Mechanical Digestion 4. Chemical Digestion 5. Absorption 6. Defacation |
| Ingestion | Taking food into the digestive tract, usually via the mouth. |
| Propulsion | Process that moves food through the alimentary canal, includes swallowing and peristalsis. |
| Mechanical Digestion | Phsyically prepares food for chemical digestion by enzymes. |
| Chemical Digestion | Process in which food molecules are broken down into their monomers by enzymes secreted into the alimentary canal. Begins in the mouth and ends in the small intestines. |
| Absorption | When digested products pass from the GI tract to the blood and lymph system through active or passive transport. Most absorption takes place in the small intestines. |
| Defacation | Elimination of indigestable substances by the body via the anus in the form of feces. |
| What are the specific types of mucosa in the oral cavity? | 1. masticatory mucosa 2. lining mucosa 3. specialized mucosa. |
| What are the three regions of the lips? | 1. skin aspect 2. vermillion zone 3. mucous aspect |
| Dentin | Forms the bulk of the tooth; composed of 70% calcium hydroxyapatite and is the second hardest substance in the body. |
| Enamel | Overlies the dentin of the crown; composed of 96% calcium hydroxyapatite and is the hardest substance in the body. |
| Cementum | Overlies the dentin of the roots; composed of about 50% calcium hydroxyapatite and 50% organic matrix and bound water. It is approximately as hard as bone. |
| Periodontal Ligament | Holds teeth in the alveolus. |
| Alveolus | Bony socket in which the tooth is suspended via the periodontal ligament. |
| Gingiva | Gums |
| Where is the palate located and what composes it? | Separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity and is composed of ulva and hard and soft palates. |
| What is the difference between lingual papillae and the taste buds? | The liqual papillae are located on the anterior portion of the tongue and the taste buds are located on the posterior portion of the tongue. |
| What are the taste sensations? | Sweet, salty, bitter, sour, umami. |
| What are the three mucosal layers of the esophagus? | 1. epithelium 2. lamina propria 3. muscularis mucosa |
| Hiatal Hernia | The low pH of the gastric juice causes changes in the epithelium of the esophagus due to reflux. |
| Barrett's Syndrome | Constant reflux can cause a premalignant condition in which the stratified squamous epithelium changes to simple columnar. |
| What is Ghrelin? | Hormone that induces hunger sensation and modulates relaxtion of stomach muscles. |
| What is so damn special about the mucosal epithelium of the stomach? | Prevents stomach from autodigestion. |
| List the 6 cell types of the lamina propria. | 1. Surface cells 2. Mucous neck cells 3. Regenerative cells 4. Parietal cells 5. Chief cells (zymogenic cells) 6. DNES |
| What is gastic juice? | water, HCL, enzymes, and mucous |
| What are the 3 phases of gastric production? | Cephalic (caused by psychological factors), Gastric (happens when food is introduced to the stomach), and Intestinal (secretion due to presence of food in sm. intestine. |
| What are the regions of the small intestine? | Duodenum, jejunum, ileum. |
| What are the modifications found in these regions? | Pilicae circularis, villi, microvilli. |
| What are the surface absorbtive cells? | Tall cells that function in absorbtion of water and nutrients. Goblet Cells (mucous), DNES cells (paracrine and endocrine hormones), and M cells (phagocytic). |
| What are the parts of colon? | Secum, colon, rectum, anus. |
| How do epithelial cells form glands? | They leave the surface where they developed and penetrate into the underlying CT, these cells manufacture a basal lamina around themselves. |
| What are the two major groups of glands? | Endocrine (ductless) and Exocrine (ducts). |
| What are the methods of classifying exocrine glands? | 1. Nature of scretion 2. Mode of secretion 3. Number of cells. |
| Mucous Glands | Produced by goblet cells. Certain salivary glands are mucous glands. |
| Serous Glands | Enzyme rich, watery fluid. Pancreas. |
| Mucous Mixed | Mucous and serous secretions. |
| What are the three methods of exocrine secretion? | 1. Merocrin 2. Apocrine 3. Holocrine |
| Merocrine | Products are secreted via exocytosis. |
| Apocrine | Apical portion of the cell pinches off and is secreted. |
| Holocrine | Whole cell is secreted, disinegrates. |
| What are unicellular exocrine glands? | The simplest form of exocrine glands. Ex: Goblet Cell |
| What are multicellular exocrine glands? | Organized clusters of secretory cells. Simple: ducts do not branch. Compound: Ducts branch. |
| What are hormones? | Chemical messengers that are produced by the endocrine glands and are delivered by the blood to target cells. |
| How are hormones classified? | 1. Protein - water soluable. 2. Protein based - mostly water soluable. 3. Steroid - Mostly lipid soluable. |
| What are the types of hormone receptors? | Membrane receptors and Intracellular receptors. |
| Where is the pituitary gland located? | Sits on the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone below the hypothalamus. |
| How is the pituitary gland divided? | 1. Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis) 2. Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis) |
| What is the relationship of the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary? | The anterior pituitary is controlled by the hypothalamus. |
| What are the hormones of the anterior pituitary? | 1. ACTH 2. TSH 3.FSH 4.LH 5.PRL 6.GH |
| ACTH | adrenocorticotropic hormone |
| TSH | thyroid stimulating hormone |
| FSH | follicle stimulating hormone |
| LH | luteinizing hormone |
| PRL | prolactin |
| GH | growth hormone or somatotropin |
| ACTH target | Adrenal cortex |
| TSH target | thyroid |
| FSH target | gonads |
| LH target | gonads |
| PRL target | mammary glands |
| GH target | bone, muscles, adipose tissue |
| Where are the adrenal glands located? | On the superior poles of the kidneys. |
| What are the hormones of the adrenal cortex? | 1. Mineralocorticoids 3. Glucocorticoids 3. Androgens |
| Addison's Disease | Decreased secretion of ACTH and results in death if not treated by steroids. |
| Cushing's Disease | Small tumors in the anterior pituitary that lead to an increase of an output of ACTH = the overproduction of cortisol. |
| Where is the thyroid gland located? | Anterior portion of the neck. |
| What are the two types of thyroid cells? | Follicular and Parafollicular Cells. |
| Follicular Produces: | T3 and T4 |
| Parafollicular Produces: | Calcitonin |
| What is the importance of T3 and T4? | They regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. They are also required for normal maturation of the nervous system. |
| What does a deficiency of thyroid hormone cause? | Hypothyroidism - Myxedema in adulthood and Cretenism in infancy. |
| What does an excess of thyroid hormone cause? | Graves' Disease |
| What does Iodine have to do with T3 and T4 production? | Iodine regulates the synthesis of T3 and T4? |
| What is a goiter? | Enlargement of the thyroid gland, due to insufficient intake of iodine. |
| Dicuss the effect of FSH and LH on the gonads. | LH causes secretion of sex steroids in both sexes and FSH stimulates the maturation of ovarian follicles and increases sperm production. |
| What affect does prolactin have on the mammary glands? | Promotes development of mammary glands during pregnancy and stimulates milk production after birth. |
| Oxytocin vs. Prolactin | Prolactin stimulates the milk production and oxytocin aids in ejection. |
| What tissues/organs does GH target? | Bone, muscles, and adipose. |
| Gigantism | Excessive GH causing extensive growth of long bones during childhood. |
| Acromegaly | Excessive GH causes extensive growth of body parts that never stop growing in adults like hands, feet, nose, chin, ears. |
| What happens with deficiency of GH? | Growth failure. |
| What are the hormones of the posterior pituitary? | Oxytocin and ADH |
| What are the targets for oxytocin and ADH? | Oxytocin targets the cervix and mammary glands. ADH targets the collecting tubules of the kidneys. |
| What are the functions of the blood? | Transport of dissolved gases, nutrients, and hormones. Maintain body temperature. |
| How is blood classified? | Specialized connective tissue that is bright to dark red, viscous, slightly alkaline, and accounts for 7% of total body weight. |
| What are the two major components of blood? | Plasma and formed elements. |
| What are the three types of formed elements? | RBCs, WBCs, and Platelets. |
| What are the three types of plasma proteins? | Albumins - 60%, Globulins - 35%, Fibrinogens - 4%. |
| Where are most of the plamsa proteins produced? | Liver. |
| What is hematopoiesis? | The formation of all blood cells. |
| What is hemoglobin? | A large protein composed of four polypeptide chains each of which is covalently bound to a heme group. |
| What is hematocrit? | The total red blood cell volume. |
| How is hematocrit used to detect problems? | Increases with dehydration because plasma levels decrease. Decreases with internal bleeding. |
| Explain the functions of the unusual shape of RBCs. | 1. Increase surface area. 2. Flexible. 3. Stack neatly. |
| Why can't RBC undergo cell division and why do they have a short life span? | Because they have no nucleus and no mitochondria. |
| Why would it be a negative thing for RBCs to contain mitochondria? | Because the mitochondria would use the oxygen to produce ATP. |
| What makes up a molecule of hemoglobin? | 2 alpha chains, 2 beta chains, and 4 HPC's (heme groups) |
| How many molecules of hemoglobin are found in a single RBC? | 280 million in each RBC. |
| What is the role of heme? | Critical in the transportation of oxygen because the iron in heme binds to the oxygen to transport it. |
| What happens when heme interacts with oxygen? | Binds to oxygen. |
| Why must the bond between heme and oxygen be reversible? | So that the RBCs can release oxygen to the body. |
| What is deoxyhemoglobin? | Hemoglobin without oxygen. |
| What happens to old red blood cells? | They are phagocytosed and reeassimilated by the body. |
| What is erythropoiesis? | The formation of RBCs. |
| Where does erythropoiesus occur? | Bone marrow. |
| What are the two categories of WBCs? | Granulocytes and Agranulocytes |
| What is the significance of these categories? | The presence or absence of granules based on how they stain. |
| What role do WBCs serve? | Form a defense system. |
| What are the types of WBCs? | Neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. |
| What are antigens? | Any substance that stimulates an immune response by the body. |
| Where are they located? | On the outside of the cell. |
| What are antibodies? | Any of a large variety of proteins that are normally present in the body or produced in response to an antigen. |
| What is agglutination? | What antibodies lock into an antigen and the cell membrane lysis and clumping appears. |
| Explain the maturation process of RBCs. | Iron gets used up > Biliverdin > Bilirubin > Released into blood stream > Bilirubin binds to albumin > transported to liver for excretion in bile. |
| How is erythropoiesis regulated? | By production of erythropoietin by the kidneys. |
| What is erythropoietin? | A glycoprotein secreted by the kidneys that stimulates the production of RBCs. |
| When is erythropoietin released? | If circulating RBC level is low. |
| What are the two major effects of releaseing erythropoietin? | Pre curser cells of RBCs are produced. |
| WBCs vs. RBCs | WBCs - nucleus, bigger, function in immunity, less abundant. RBCs - no nuclei, more abundant, small, supply oxygen. |
| Leukopenia | Inadequate amout of WBCs. |
| Leukocytosis | Too many WBCs. |
| How do you determine a person's blood type? | By what antigens are present: A,B,Rh, or none. |
Created by:
Fleurdelis
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