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Final Hajnal Final
Chapters 8-11
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Watson's lecture at Columbia in 1913 | -Watson was invited by Cattell -Watson was 34 years old and from the Univ of Chicago -Psychology has failed as a science. -Don't study mental states, don't study introspection. |
| Facts about Watson (1878-1958) | -Grew up in poverty in South Carolina -Graduated from Furman University -Studied with Dewey and Angell in Chicago -Liked psychology over philosophy -PhD in 1903 with Herbert Donaldson (neurologist) |
| Watson thought that animals were excellent subjects because... | They were adaptive learners and problem solvers. |
| Comparative psychology | -Big influence on behaviorism -Origins are with Darwin |
| George Romanes | -Comparative psychologist -Introspection by analogy |
| Introspection by analogy | Attribution of human mental processes to animals |
| C. Lloyd Morgan | -Comparative psychologist -Morgan's canon -Conducted first experiments with animals |
| Morgan's canon | Don't invoke higher mental processes if you can explain behavior with simpler ones |
| Edward Thorndike | -Comparative psychologist -Cattell's student at Columbia -Associated with the Law of effect |
| Law of effect | Successful behaviors and responses are learned (reinforced) |
| Pavlov's Discovery: Classical Conditioning | -Pair bell with food -At first only food caused dog to salivate -After a number of bell + food pairings -The bell alone caused salivation |
| The goal of psychology according to Watson | Predict and control behavior |
| Watson's thoughts about introspection and consciousness | Introspection: not valid scientific method Consciousness: inaccessible, maybe not even real; not worth studying |
| Little Albert Experiment | -Cause change in emotion in humans -Baby exposed to animals and not afraid -Started pairing the sight of rat with loud noise which induced fear -After a while, sight of rat alone induced fear -Followed Pavlov's procedure |
| Tolman | -Neobehaviorism -PhD at Harvard under Munsterberg -Worked at Berkeley -Book "Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men" -Latent learning -Cognitive maps |
| Ideas asserted in Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men (Tolman) | -Behavior is purposive and goal directed -Purposiveness determined by cognitions -Rats have cognitive maps -Experience builds up expectancies about the environment -Stimulus->Intervening Variables->Response |
| Cognitive maps | Spatial representations of the world (Tolman) |
| Latent learning | Reinforcement not necessary for learning |
| Clark Hull | -Neobehaviorism -PhD at Univ of Wisonsin -Worked at Yale -Psychology is a natural science -Behavior quantifiable with a few exact ordinary equations -Reinforcement is necessary for learning and operates by means of drive reduction |
| List of drives, according to Drive Reduction (Hull) | -Hunger -Thirst -Oxygen -Pain avoidance -Sleep -Sex |
| Hypothetico-deductive method (Hull) | -Generated testable hypotheses -Considered good science |
| B.F. Skinner | -PhD at Harvard -Called his science the experimental analysis of behavior -Worked with few subjects, no stats, just demonstration of behavior changes -developed the Skinner box -operant conditioning -Book "Beyond Freedom and Dignity" |
| Operant conditioning (Skinner) | -"Reverse" Pavlov -How consequences of behavior, not the stimulus, affects behavior -How good behaviors promoted, and bad behaviors suppressed |
| "Beyond Freedom and Dignity" | -1971 -Claimed that freedom is an illusion |
| Events that led to psychology being considered a profession | -APA founded (1892) -First APA constitution (1895); objective: "advancement of psychology as a science" -1945, changed constitution to include "profession" -(1981) APA defined 4 professional areas: clinical, school, counseling, I/O |
| What defines psychology as a profession | -requires long training -includes specialized knowledge -high standards of practice -continuing education encouraged |
| Walter Dill Scott | -Known for work in advertising psychology -Developed over 100 tests for 80+ kinds of army jobs -Tested 3.5 million soldiers -Tests were originally developed for career screening in sales -Awarded with Distinguished Service Medal (1919) |
| Harry Hollingworth in World War I | Worked at Army Hospital on "shell shock" cases (PTSD) |
| American Association of Clinical Psychologists (AACP, 1917) | -Director was J.E. Wallace Wallin -Membership served as a credential to the public |
| Leta Hollingworth in the AACP | -As secretary, formulated certain demands -certification and licensure exam needs -APA should list approved psychology departments where one can obtain a terminal degree in clinical psychology -AACP became part of APA, but still not treated well |
| Association of Consulting Psychologists (ACP, 1930) | In 1937 developed Journal of Consulting Psychology |
| American Association of Applied Psychology (AAAP, 1938) | Included clinical, consulting, educational and industrial |
| Early role of clinical psychology | -Administer and score tests -Maybe interpret test results (medical and psychiatric communities fought this) -1930s: expanded from intellectual to personality assessment -Relied on Rorschach Inkblot test which was heavily used until 1970s |
| Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and Minnesota Personality Inventory (MMPI) were added to clinical practice in... | 1930s and 1940s |
| The role of World War II in clinical psychology | -Provided next big step: providing psychotherapy -1946: 60% of VA patients were neuropsychiatric cases |
| 1949 APA Conference in Boulder CO | -Plan of study developed -Strong science background -clinical skills (1 year internship) -David Shakow was the creator of the scientist-practitioner model -Licensing laws in all states were passed and established by 1977 |
| Development of therapy | -Psychotherapy was the main method in the beginning (influenced by Freud, resolving interpersonal and intrapsychic conflicts) -Group therapy, created by psychiatrist Jacob Moreno -Behavior therapy (1950s) |
| Behavior therapy | -Joseph Wolpe's systematic desensitization (overcome phobias, anxiety) -Skinnerian operant psychology |
| Walter Van Dyke Bingham (1880-1952) | -Established applied psychology department at Carnegie Institute of Technology in 1915 -Hired Scott from Northwestern Univ -Studied mostly personnel psychology -Job analysis, selection, performance appraisal |
| Industrial/Organizational Psychology | -Organizational aspects: human relations in the workplace (Hawthorne studies), productivity and job satisfaction checks -World War II gave it a huge impetus, Human factors-> engineering psychology -design of equipment-> efficiency, safety |
| Important People in School Psychology | -Stanley Hall: child study movement -L. Witmer: 1st school psychologist (unofficially) treated school related problems in children and adolescents -Arnold Gesell: 1st school psychologist (officially) |
| Early work in school psychology | -Identify mentally defective children -send them to schools for the feebleminded -study of gifted children (Terman and Stanford) -Leta Hollingworth: 1st textbook on gifted education |
| Important dates in school psychology | 1935: NY, 1st state to offer certification in school psychology 1953: only 3 doctoral programs 1954: Thayer conference, 50 attendees 1971: 1st doctoral program accredited by APA |
| Current state of school psychology | -200 universities with PhD programs -25,000 school psychologists -APA, Div 16, and NASP |
| The development of Counseling psychology | -emerged later -prolonged identity crisis -originated in vocational guidance movement & personnel work in I/O -became more similar to clinical psychology Beginnings in 1920s:career counseling via intellectual and personality assessment tools |
| Influence of Carl Rogers in counseling psychology with the nondirective counseling program | -no tests, no advice -active listening skills -change through self-exploration and understanding -help patients help themselves |
| Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI) | -Founded 1936 -Still exists as DIV 9 in APA |
| Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley | -1903: Univ of Chicago, dissertation-first experim. study of sex differences -25 males,25 females -20hr long battery of tests: sensory, motor, cognitive, personality -Conclusion: no major inborn differences -Upbringing might be source of differences |
| Leta Stetter Hollingworth | -Wife of Harry Hollingworth (advertising) -Couldn't get a job in NY, not allowed to work outside home -1916: PhD @ Teacher's College w/ Thorndike -Dissertation: Does menstrual cycle affect women's cognition and emotions during the period? No evidence. |
| Variability Hypothesis (studied/disproved by Leta Stetter Hollingsworth) | -More men at low and high end of IQ -More males 0-13, more females 13+ at mental institutions; explanation: females can exist longer outside an institution due to societal pressures -Data from birth records: no sex diff in variability for 10 measures |
| Kurt Lewin | -Came to U.S. in 1933, spent time at MIT -Considered part of Gestalt Psychology Movement -Became president of SPSSI in 1941 -Kurt Lewin award has been issued in his honor annually -Jew during Nazi era -Found Research Center for Group Dynamics @ MIT |
| Kurt Lewin's action research | -Research on social problems is not enough, one has to find a way to use that research to change situations in real life -Situations and life space shape behavior (include both environmental and personal factors) |
| Scientific Racism | Science used as a tool for racist views |
| R. Meade Bache (scientific racism example) | -Univ of Penn, 1895 -RT increases with evolution -Native Amer. fastest, Afr Amer 2nd fastest, Whites slowest -Interpretation: task is primitive, does not require higher brain functions |
| Floyd Allport's 1924 book "Social Psychology" | -Inferiority not just due to inheritance(worst case), but to culture (which can be fixed) |
| Otto Klineberg (non-racist explanation) | Racist claim: Blacks in North had higher IQ than in the South Racist explanation: smart Blacks moved North (selective migration) Non-racist explanation: environment is the difference (culture, education) |
| Turning points in psychology on race | -From 1920s more non-WASP psychologists were trained -Opposition to Hitler -10,000 PhDs awarded 1876-1920, but only 11 to Afr Americans |
| Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark | -Civil Rights movement -Brown vs. Board of Education expert witnesses: self-esteem in Black children in segregated schools is lower -first time psychological research used in Supreme Court decision |
| Gestalt psychology | -"The whole is different from the sum of its parts" -Holistic approach opposed reductionism (most of psychology and science) -Phenomenological approach: studying experience as it occurs, as it appears |
| Founders of Gestalt psychology | -Max Wertheimer -Kurt Koffka -Wolfgang Kohler *These men would eventually overshadow Wundt in Germany |
| Max Wertheimer | -German psychologist -Studied with Carl Stumpf in Berlin -PhD in Wurzburg with Ozwald Kulpe -Most influenced by Austrian philosopher/psychologist Christian von Ehrenfels -One of 3 founders of Gestalt Psych |
| Phi Phenomenon (Gestalt psychology) | -Apparent motion from static pictures presented stroboscopically -Introspection cannot get rid of the illusion -Experience is different than physical stimulus |
| Gestalt psychology vs. Behaviorism | -Experience is not directly knowable, behavior is (behaviorism) -Experience is the only thing worth knowing (Gestaltists) -Gestaltists believed in innate organizing tendencies of the mind manifested as grouping principles in everyday experiences |
| Zeigarnik effect (Gestalt psychology) | Memory about interrupted or incomplete tasks is better than about completed tasks |
| Restructuring (gestalt psychology) | -Find out how problems are represented in the mind -Reorganize representations and their functions -Kohler (1925) Sultan the chimp |
| Gestaltists in the USA | -Koffka in 1924 at Smith College -Wertheimer in 1933 at New School for Social Research in NYC -Lewin in 1933 -Kohler in 1935 at Swarthmore College *Did not have a big impact or huge following initially, because no grad students |
| FC Bartlett | -British psychologist -Head of psychology in Cambridge -Studied social and cultural influences on memory -Memory is just as much constructed, as it is reconstructed -Inherently prone to errors -Associated with "schema" and "War of the Ghosts" |
| Schema (FC Bartlett) | Cognitive framework that organizes past experiences related to particular concepts |
| Proof that memory is constructive (Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts") | -English subjects read story, retell -Recall story from Canadian Native American folklore -Errors consistent with English culture (boat-> canoe; seal hunt-> sailing expedition) |
| The birth of modern cognitive psychology | -Hixon symposium on cerebral mechanisms in behavior (Sept 1948, Cal Tech) -First mention of the computer metaphor: humans as information processors |
| John von Neumann | Human brains are information processing devices |
| Artificial intelligence (1950s) developed by... | -Alan Newell -Herbert Simon: predicted in 1957 that a computer would beat a world chess master in 1967, it happened in 1997 |
| Donald Broadbent's model of selective attention (Broadbent's Filter Model, 1958) | -First flow chart of human cognition -Human as information processor -Messages>Sensory store>Filter>(Attended message)>Detector>To memory |
| Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) Memory model | -First flow chart model of memory Input>Sensory>Short term memory to rehearsal or output or Long-term memory |
| Pioneers in cognitive psychology | -Jerome Bruner -Roger Brown -Noam Chomsky -Ulric Neisser |
| Jerome Bruner | -Categorization of concepts -Used introspection, thinking out loud methods |
| Roger Brown | -tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon -flashbulb memory -how much of language is influenced by thought |
| Noam Chomsky | -review of Skinner's "Verbal Behavior" -nativist view of language -computer metaphor: language acquisition device |
| Ulric Neisser | Book "Cognitive Psychology" (1967), coined the term |
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