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38 Independence Era
Divisions between ethnic and religious groups remained
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Bangladesh | formerly East Pakistan; after a civil war became independent in 1972. |
| Indira Gandhi | Prime Minister of India (r. 1966–1977, 1980–1984); daughter of former Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru; dominated Indian politics for several decades |
| Corazon Aquino | president of Philippines (r. 1986–1992) |
| Benazir Bhutto | Prime Minister of Pakistan, (r. 1988–1990, 1993–1996). |
| Primary products | food or industrial crops with a high demand in industrialized economies; their prices tend to fluctuate widely |
| Neocolonialism | continued dominance of new nations by their former rulers. |
| Kwame Nkrumah | Ghanian leader at independence; his efforts at reform ended with the creation of dictatorial rule |
| Muslim Brotherhood | Egyptian religious and nationalist movement founded by Hasan al-Banna in 1928; became an example for later fundamentalist movements in the Islamic world |
| Gamal Abdul Nasser | member of the Free Officers Movement who seized power in Egypt in a 1952 military coup; became leader of Egypt; formed a state-directed reforming regime; ousted Britain from the Suez Canal in 1956; most reforms were unsuccessful |
| Anwar Sadat | successor of Nasser as Egypt’s ruler; dismantled Nasser’s costly and failed programs; signed peace with Israel in 1973; assassinated by a Muslim fundamentalist |
| Hosni Mubarak | president of Egypt (served: 1981–present); has continued Anwar Sadat’s policies. |
| Jawaharlal Nehru | first leader of independent India; committed to programs of social reform, economic development, and preservation of civil liberties |
| Green Revolution | agricultural revolution that increased production through improved seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation; helped to support rising Asian populations |
| Ayatollah Khomeini | religious leader of Iran following the 1979 revolution; worked for fundamentalist Islamic religious reform and elimination of Western influences |
| Apartheid | Afrikaner policy of racial segregation in South Africa designed to create full economic, social, and political exploitation of African majority |
| Homelands | areas in South Africa for residence of “tribal” African peoples; overpopulated and poverty-stricken; source of cheap labor for whites |
| African National Congress (ANC) | South African political organization founded to defend African interests; became the ruling political party after the 1994 elections |
| Walter Sisulu and Steve Biko | African leaders imprisoned (Sisulu) or murdered (Biko) by the Afrikaner regime. |
| Nelson Mandela | ANC leader imprisoned by Afrikaner regime; released in 1990 and elected president of South Africa in 1994 |
| F.W. de Klerk: | South African president (served: 1989–1994); led Afrikaner push for reforms ending apartheid; Nelson Mandela was freed in his presidency |
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