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MTTC TESOL
Language Acquisition, Linguistics, and Comparisons
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Stages of first-language acquisition (p.5) | 5 stages: Babbling, one-word, two-word, telegraphic, and later multiword stages |
| Babbling stage (p.5) | 6-8mo, child makes repetitive patterns of sound with his mouth |
| One-word stage (p.5) | AKA one-morpheme, one-unit, or holophrastic stage; 9-18mo, basic word stems and single open-class words |
| Two-word stage (p.5) | 18-24mo, miniature sentences with simple semantic relations |
| Telegraphic stage (p.5) | AKA early multiword or multimorpheme stage, 24-30mo, expresses sentence structures with lexical rather than functional or grammatical morphemes |
| Later multiword stage (p.5) | 30mo+, characteristic grammatical or functional structures of the primary language emerge and are incorporated |
| Behaviorist model (p.5) | B.F. Skinner; individuals learn language as a direct response to stimuli; correct responses to stimuli are reinforced and perpetuated |
| Nativist model (p.5) | Noam Chomsky; born with universal grammar which is used as a template for language acquisition; "language acquisition device" |
| Language acquisition device (p.5) | enables the acquisition of the linguistic principles of other languages |
| Sociocultural theory (p.6) | Vygotsky; learning begins as a result of interpersonal communication and is then internalized as intrapersonal; "zone of proximal development" |
| Zone of proximal development (p.6) | Difference between what a person knows and what he could know if given a bit of assistance from someone else |
| Scaffolding (p.6) | Process of giving temporary aid to facilitate learning; includes modeling, providing cues, and encouraging the person |
| Ecological model (p.6) | Bronfenbrenner; four nested levels: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem |
| Microsystem (p.6) | child's immediate environment |
| Mesosystem (p.6) | interactions btwn components of the microsystem |
| Exosystem (p.6) | more general elements of child's environment |
| Macrosystem (p.6) | overarching environmental influences |
| Steven Pinker (p.6) | One of the most prominent living theorists on human language acquisition; agreed with Noam Chomsky that humans are born with innate capacity for learning language; added that capacity is result of evolution; communication increased odds of survival |
| Jim Cummins (p.6) | One of the most prominent living theorists on human language acquisition; coined terms BICS and CALP |
| BICS and CALP (p.6,8) | Two types of fluency BICS - Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (informal/social); acquired 6-24mo of language study CALP - Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (classroom); acquired 5-7yrs |
| Cognitive Model (p.6) | Piaget; develop linguistic skills in order to control environment; four stages |
| Stages of cognitive model (p.6) | Four stages: sensorimotor intelligence, preoperational thought, concrete operations, formal operations Three phases: assimilation, accommodation, equilibrium |
| Sensorimotor intelligence (p.6) | 0-2yrs; learns to physically handle objects of external world |
| Preoperational thought (p.6) | 2-7yrs; improves physically and begins to think conceptually |
| Concrete operations (p.6) | 7-11yrs; develops logical thinking skills |
| Formal operations (p.6) | 11-15yrs; begins to think abstractly and can develop mental hypotheses |
| Assimilation phase (p.6) | child uses known word to describe new object or concept until corrected |
| Accommodation phase (p.6) | child learns to correct own errors of linguistic identification |
| Equilibrium phase (p.6) | child uses right word to describe the object |
| Acquisition-learning model (p.6) | Acquisition - subconscious process by which vocabulary and basic rules of grammar are slowly and steadily absorbed (native language) Learning - conscious study and knowledge of vocab and rules of grammar (fluency) |
| Input hypothesis (p.7) | Stephen Krashen; need to be given info slightly above ability level in language; continue to raise level; need to understand majority |
| Monitor hypothesis (p.7) | Krashen? explains how learning grammatical rules affects LA; when an individual learns rules of grammar, able to monitor consciously discourse he hears in the future; encouraged to refine and polish speech; extroverts vs introverts |
| Sociocognitive approach (p.7) | true competence is demonstrated in ability to express oneself in different social contexts; emphasizes conversation in different social contexts |
| Natural order hypothesis (p.7) | Krashen? LA follows predictable patterns; certain grammatical structures will almost always be acquired before others, regardless of age; instruction order is not same as natural order |
| Affective filter hypothesis (p.8) | emotional factors contribute to acquisition, esp. self-confidence, anxiety, and motivation |
| Relationship btwn primary language academic success and English (p9) | Very high; see book |
| Verbal/linguistic students (p.9) | reading, learning about language, speaking, writing, manipulating words in puzzles; "traditional" approach to language instructruction |
| Logical/mathematical students (p.9) | solving problems with numbers, experiments, calculations, hypothetical questions, data |
| Kinesthetic students (p.9) | exercise, move around classroom for concentration, hands-on activities |
| Visual/spacial students (p.9) | learn with eyes, maps, charts, drawings, illustrations |
| Musical students (p.9) | singing, instruments, rhythmic games, listening to music, songs, musical mnemonics |
| Interpersonal students (p.9) | groups, mediate disputes, excellent judges of moods, communicate with peers, interpret social cues and gestures of English speakers |
| Intrapersonal students (p.9) | introverted, work by themselves, set own goals, think deeply on a particular subject, not good at thinking on their feet, pen-pals |
| Naturalistic students (p.9) | outdoors, sensitive to small differences, explore language for natural phenomena, English journal |
| Language variation (p.10) | general rules, but no such thing as a permanent, infallible standard language; constant variation |
| Dialect (p.10) | version of a language that is used by a particular group of people; indicated by idiosyncratic vocabulary |
| Sociolect (p.10) | Social class |
| Idiolect (p.10) | particular speech of an indidvidual; created from influence of regional and class dialects |
| Register (p.10) | form of language that is appropriate to a given situation; context |
| Slang (p.10) | any nonstandard form of a language; ephemeral (does not last for very long) |
| Development of phonics knowledge (3 phases) (p.11) | logographic, analytic, orthographic |
| Logographic phase (p.11) | "word-picture;" able to identity familiar words by sight |
| Analytic phase (p.11) | components of words; words that sound alike often have a similar appearance; most intense period of phonics development |
| Orthographic phase (p.11) | acquired almost all of the tools required to sound out familiar and unfamiliar words; know sounds of letters and read most common words automatically |
| Spelling development (four stages) (p.11) | pre-phonetic, phonetic, transitional, and conventional |
| Pre-phonetic stage (p.12) | incomplete understand of relationship btwn sounds and letters; logographic phase of phonics |
| Phonetic stage (p.12) | use appropriate letters for sounds of a word; use one letter represent a complex sound that requires 2 or more letters, write letters upside down or backwards; small sight vocabulary; misspell words with silent vowels |
| Transitional stage (p.12) | solid understanding of correspondence btwn letters and sounds; easy to understand written message; basic sight vocabulary |
| Conventional stage (p.12) | near-perfect spelling; massive sight vocabulary; intuitive sense of spelling |
| Phonology (p.13) | the way a language sounds |
| Phoneme (p.13) | smallest distinguishable unit of sound that can hold meaning; ex: /k/ |
| Morphology (p.13) | system by which words are constructed out of letters |
| Morpheme (p.13) | smallest meaningful unit of a morphological system; ex: s |
| Syntax (p.13) | basic structure of the sentences; basic set of linguistic rules that must be followed in order for linguistic expressions to be understood |
| Grammar (p.13) | set of rules that must be followed in order to attain a certain, somewhat arbitrary standard of acceptable expression |
| Phonetics (p.13) | study of sounds made during human speech; deals with real, measurable sounds |
| Articulary phonetics (p.13) | focuses on precise positions and movements of speech organs |
| Acoustic phonetics (p.13) | focuses on properties of sound waves and their reception by inner ear |
| Auditory phonetics (p.13) | focuses on process by which brain forms perceptual representation of phonetic input |
| Semantics (p.13) | meanings of language's words; explore denotations and connotations |
| Denotation (p.13) | the thing or set of things to which a word refers |
| Connotation (p.14) | set of judgements and references that accompany it |
| Pragmatics (p.14) | system by which language is used in social interactions |
| Phonemic awareness (p.14, 15) | the understanding that words are made up of individual speech sounds; measred by 6 tasks: sound matching, sound isolation, sound blending, sound substitution, sound deletion, and sound segmentation |
| Phonics (p.14) | the direct correspondence between letters and sounds |
| Grapheme (p.14) | illustrative series of letters; ex: the hard c or k could be represented as the c in cold or the k in kilogram |
| Consonants (p.15) | formed by a motion that somehow blocks air |
| Vowels (p.15) | formed by the vibration of air moving through the voice box and mouth |
| Consonant blends (p.15) | combination of 2 or more consonants into a single sound; ex: st, dr, gl |
| Diphthong (p.15) | a single but shifting sound made by the combination of two or more vowels; ex: boil |
| Digraphs (p.15) | a group of 2 or more letters that create a sound different from the individual sounds of the letters; ex: sh, ph, ch |
| Onset (p.15) | the sound that initiates a syllable |
| Rime (p.15) | vowel and any consonants after the vowel |
| Beginning, end, and medial phonemes (p.15) | initial, middles, and end phonemes; ex: bully = /b/, /u/ & /l/, /y/ |
| Transfer of literary competence (p.16) | positive transfers of knowledge in phonemic awareness, reading phonics, word recognition strategies, and cognates; biggest obstacle is lack of English vocabulary and background knowledge |
| Transition point (2 points) (p.16) | a shift in the relationship of the two languages to one another 1 - students who have received formal instruction in L1 begin formal reading and content-area instruction in English 2 - redesignation; students receive all instruction in English |
| Metacognitive processes (p.16) | ability to self-critique comprehension and analysis; predict, organize, and relate info in a text to their own lives; obstacle is applying L1 patterns incorrectly to L2 |
| Dell Hymes (p.17) | sociolinguist; concerned with interactions between language, society, and cultural context; SPEAKING mnemonic |
| SPEAKING mnemonic: Essential characteristics of discourse (p.17) | Setting and Scene, Participants, Ends (goals/intentions), Act sequence (structure of linguistic interaction), Key (gestures/inflections that influence tone/mood), Instrumentalities (methods/conventions of speech); Norms, Genre |
| Basil Bernstein (p.17) | Distinguished btwn restricted code and elaborated code |
| Restricted code (p.17) | Used by people who have a similar cultural background or know each other well |
| Elaborated code (p.17) | Used by people who are unfamiliar with one another or with one another's culture; requires more explicit context and verbiage |
| Sheltered English approach (p.17) | Similar to language immersion; comprehensible input; all information should be understandable to the students; student interaction; student background knowledge and experience |
| Components of Sheltered English approach (p.17) | hands-on activities, modeling, demonstrations, maps, globes, timelines, bulletin boards, pictures, graphs, computers with interactive software |
| Concepts of Sheltered English approach (p.17) | relationship between language development and conceptual development; mastery of language must increase along with mastery of concepts |
| Making input comprehensible in Sheltered English approach (p.18) | explicitly define tricky vocabulary; manipulatives, graphical depictions; content-area instruction in primary language of students; training in sheltered English and SDAIE (specially designed academic instruction in English) methods and strategies |
| Mathematics instruction in Sheltered English approach (p.18) | most difficult; unique vocabulary; develop a conceptual understanding of math; make connections btwn concrete, semi-concrete, and abstract expressions of new concepts |
| Sheltered English vs. ESL (p.18) | Sheltered English: Focus on mastery of content area certified in content area & ESL training ESL: Focus on development of English skills only endorsed in ESL BOTH: focus on terminology of content areas, emphasize need to teach metacognitive strategies |
| Submersion programs (p.18) | Sink or swim; student drowns in new information; provide very little structured support for English acquisition; high rate of failure; students blamed for failure to acquire English rapidly |
| Transitional ESL education (p.19) | common model of ESL; taught in both L1 and L2 according to proficiency; raises level of English used in classroom; more beneficial; Krashen's input hypothesis |
| Primary language instruction (p.19) | Content-area material is in L1; majority are native Spanish speakers; prevent students from falling behind grade level during ELA; increase amount of language |
| English language development (p.19) | common method; graduated program of improvement in ELA; summative assessment at beginning to differentiate proficiency levels; focus addressing learning styles; large amount of practice time; ungraded opportunities; T is fluent in both languages |
| SDAIE (p.19) | Specially designed academic instruction in English; student must have at least intermediate fluency in English; course material in L1 but provided access to English versions; motivation-driven; goals are set; T fluent in both languages |
| Characteristics of ESL program (p.20) | content taught in L1; separate instruction for English; intensive & take up majority of school day; dangers: prevent learning content material, difficult to transfer L2 to core curriculum |
| Dual immersion programs (p.20) | groups of students with different L1 are placed together and encouraged to learn each other's native tongue; promotes true bilingualism and healthy respect for another culture; L1 improves from explaining to others; uncommon but becoming popular |
| Four basic orientations for teaching ESL (p.20) | structural/linguistic, cognitive, affective/motivational, and functional/communicative |
| Structural/linguistic approach (p.20) | comparisons btwn structures of different languages; isolate grammatical and syntactic elements in each langauge and teach students in prescribed sequence |
| Cognitive approach (p.20) | objectives that enable student to make generalizations about hte rules of English; emphasis on individual learning |
| Affective/motivational approach (p.20) | predispositions of student enhance or inhibit learning; diminish anxiety associated with learning by increasing identification with native English speakers |
| Functional/communicative approach (p.20) | selecting language structures on basis of utility in achieving a communicative purpose; focus on transmission and reception of speech |
| Audiolingual method ESL (p.21) | repetition of structural patterns; overlearn material; prevent student errors; reinforce correct expression; grammar taught inductively (informed of rules after intuitively learned proper form); new material presented in dialogue; losing popularity |
| Total physical response approach ESL (p.21) | psychomotor systems to inculcate vocab and syntactic forms; not required to produce until ready; T gradually increases complexity; kinesthetic learning style; T gives command and does it, T&S do command, S does command, S gives command to other S |
| Communicative strategy ESL (p.21) | comprehension of linguistic principles always comes before production of speech or writing; goal to create meaningful communication; specific vocabulary and expressions; practice dialogue |
| Grammar-translation approach ESL (p.21) | taught in L1; very little active use of English; vocab taught in list format; detailed explanation of grammar rules; complex texts; little attention to spoken forms; no instruction in pronunciation; translate sentences |
| Direct approach ESL (p.22) | grammar-translation approach + more L2; dialogue incorporating modern conversational style in English; translation given with questions based on dialogue; grammar rules learned through induction (generalize from practice) |
| Reading approach ESL (p.22) | for those who aren't living in English community & reading is most important skill to master 2 emphases: improve reading ability and establish current events & historical knowledge of English countries; limited grammar instruction; no pronunciation |
| Community language learning approach ESL (p.22) | lower affective filter & gradually introduce S to Eng linguistic community; S considered a client and T is trained in counseling. 5 stages: S dependent on T, S has contact with Eng speakers, S speaks directly to group, S speaks freely, S refines skills |
| Functional-notional approach ESL (p.22) | strictly organized syllabus of language; language divided into discrete units of analysis (usually social context); S forced to express himself in Eng; every social situation; exponent, code, and code-switching |
| Exponent (p.23) | statement that is appropriate to a given function, situation, and topic |
| Code (p.23) | shared language of a community of speakers |
| Code-switching (p.23) | process by which individuals shift tone or formality of speech in order to convey hierarchy, bonding, or some other interpersonal relation |
| 5 Categories of discourse of functional-notion approach (p.23) | Functional-notional approach: 5 major functional categories of discourse: personal, interpersonal, directive, referential, and imaginative |
| Personal function (p.23) | expressing and elaborating one's own thoughts, ideas, or feelings |
| Interpersonal function (p.23) | establish and maintain positive social and professional relationships, whether by exchanging basic pleasantries or organizing social relations; ex: apologies or invitations |
| Directive function (p.23) | change actions of others; ex: giving instructions, requesting permission, asking directions |
| Referential function (p.23) | discuss abstract concepts |
| Imaginative function (p.23) | express creativity and artistic expression; ex: fictional dialogue, creative solutions to concrete problems |
| Marie M. Clay (p.23) | originator of the Reading Recovery movement |
| Reading Recovery movement (p.23) | Marie M. Clay; an effective method of accelerating the progress of struggling readers; continuous and specific assessment to diagnose reading problems early on; program 12-20 weeks |
| Sharon Taberski | written popular books about personal relatinships btwn teachers and new readers |
| Priscilla Vail (p.23) | expert on dyslexia and on the assessment of dyslexic children; advocates a whole-language approach to teaching dyslexics and other students with special needs |
| Marilyn Jager Adams (p.23) | established basic criteria for early reading success and helped to create voice recognition software for developing readers |
| 5 basic kinds of intentional listening (p.23) | appreciative, therapeutic, discriminative, comprehensive, and critical |
| Listening for comprehension (p.23) | most familiar form of listening; ex: lecture, informative, persuasive speeches, obtain info; depends on attention to organization and structure of message |
| Detached, intentional listening (p.24) | ideal listener: detaching or decentering - considers message on its own terms rather than in context of listener's experience and emotions; gives a fair hearing; open mind |
| RRA technique (p.24) | Review, Relate, Anticipate; 3 steps of active listening |
| Spoken message (p.24) | 3 basic areas: main ideas, organization, and supporting evidence |
| Listener assessment (p.24) | factors that contribute to speaker's message: situation (physical/interpersonal setting: formal/informal), occasion, physical environment, personal characteristics, personal presentation |
| Listener analysis (p.25) | 3 fundamental factors: ideas, organization, and support |
| Critical listening (p.25) | most active form of audience behavior; organizing and interpreting info in a speech; evaluating arguments or ideas, weighing evidence, thinking of possible problems with speech; need detachment |
| Discriminative listening (p.25) | focuses on aspects of message that are implied rather than spoken directly; pay attention to sound of voice, body language, and implicit argument |
| Speech topic (p.26) | each point and piece of supporting material essential; clear and explicit reason to include things; evidence supports what it's intended to support; points are made in proper order |
| Faulty attribution of causation (p.26) | most common error of logic; speaker assumes that just because one thing followed another, the second was caused by the first; provide detailed substantiation for any assertions of causation |
| Circular reasoning (p.26) | common logical error in speeches; assumptions at beginning of argument depend on conclusion of argument being true |
| Contradictory argument (p.26) | speaker introduces info that directly contradicts main argument |
| Social context (p.26) | set of relationships btwn listener and speaker, and btwn members of audience themselves; important in speeches |
| Communication rules (p.27) | Q/A period, presentation, humor, what's appropriate |
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