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Biochem 2 Test 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Range for proper Fasting Blood Glucose | 70-99 mg/dL |
| Range for proper blood glucose 2 hr after eating (postprandial) | 70-145 mg/dL |
| Range for proper blood glucose at random (casual) | 70-125 mg/dL |
| What is chronically high blood glucose called | diabetes |
| What is the prediabetes range | Fasting blood glucose of 11-120 mg/dL |
| What is the glucose level for diabetes | Fasting blood glucose over 120 mg/dL |
| Symptoms of low BG | <60 Hunger, glucagon release, epinephrine, cortisol, sweating, trembling <40 Lethargy, convulsions, coma <10 Permanent brain damage, death |
| Pathways to get from glucose to glycogen and back | Glucose -> Glycogen; Gycogenesis (anabolism) Glycogen -> glucose; Glycogenolysis (catabolism) |
| Pathways to get from glucose to pyruvate and back | Glucose -> Pyruvate; Glycolysis Pyruvate -> Glucose; Gluconeogenesis |
| Pathways to get from glucose to Pentose-5-phosphate and back | Pentose Phosphate pathway |
| Where does glycolysis happen | In cytoplasm |
| What is glycolysis | -The conversion of glucose (C6) to 2 pyruvate (C3) -The partial oxidation of C (makes NADH) -Production of ATP (2 ATP) |
| Phases of glycolysis | Preparatory Phase Payoff Phase |
| What happens in the preparatory phase of glycolysis | Phosphorylation of glucose and it's conversion to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Glucose -(2ATP)-> fructose 1,6-bisphosphate -> 2 glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate |
| What happens in the Payoff phase of glycolysis | Oxidative conversion of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to pyruvate and the coupled formation of ATP and NADH 2 glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate -(2NAD,4ADP)-> 2 pyruvate, 2NADH, 4ATP |
| How many total ATP does glycolysis produce | 2 ATP/ glucose w/out electron transport available (in anaerobic conditions or where mitochondria no there) |
| What is Gluconeogenesis | -Formation of new sugar -pyruvate -> glucose (other C3/4 compounds -> glucose) -Mainly happens in the liver |
| How do we get from Pyruvate to Phosphoenol Pyruvate | Pyruvate Carboxylase enzyme - 2 Pyruvate (C3) -(2HCO3,2ATP)-> 2 Oxyloacetate (C4),2ADP,2Pi Pep Carboxy Kinase - 2 Oxyloacetate(C4) -(2GTP)-> Phosphoenol-pyruvate(C3), 2CO2, 2GDP |
| Enzyme to get from Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to Fructose 6-phosphate | Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase Pi is lost |
| Enzyme to get from Glucose 6-phosphate to glucose | Glucose 6-phosphatase Pi is lost |
| How many ATP are needed for gluconeogenesis | 6 ATP |
| Many of the gluconeogenesis enzymes are dependent on what mineral | Mg2+ |
| Where does gluconeogenesis happen | Mostly in the mitochondria |
| What are the beginning steps to gluconeogenesis during starvation/ with diabetes | -In mitochondria; Pyruvate->Oxaloacetate->Malate-> -In cytosol; ->Malate-NAD->Oxaloacetate->PEP |
| What are the beginning steps to gluconeogenesis during exercising/with anaerobic muscles | -In cytosol; Lactate-NAD->Pyruvate-> -In mitochondria; ->Pyruvate->oxaloacetate->PEP |
| Are membrane transporters used for oxyloacetate and NAD/NADH | No because they stay in the mitochondria |
| Where is malate dehydrogenase get used for gluconeogenesis and what other cycle is there a connection with | The conversion of Malate to Oxaloacetate The citric acid cycle |
| What are Isoenzymes | Enzymes that catalyze same rxn in different cell compartments or tissues and encode by separate genes Ex: Mitochondrial/cytosolic; Malate Dehydrogenase, PEP carboxy kinase |
| Overall gluconeogenesis equation | 2 pyruvate + 4 ATP + 2 GTP + 2 NADH + 4 H2O -> glucose + 4 ADP + 2 GDP + 6 Pi + 2 NAD |
| What type of pathway needs ATP and electron donors | Anabolic |
| What type of pathway produces ATP and reduce electron carriers | Catabolic |
| Where is lactate formed and can it be recycled | -Formed in anaerobic skeletal muscle tissue and RBC (no mito.) -Can be recycled back to glucose in the liver |
| Describe the Metabolism of lactate | -Glucose goes through glycolysis to make 2 pyruvate -If the 2 pyruvate has nowhere to go it is converted to 2 Lactate via fermentation -The fermentation process takes H+'s from NADH created in glycolysis, creating more NAD+ and keeping glycolysis going |
| Pyruvate structure vs lactate structure | Pyruvate = COO-CO-CH3 Lactate = COO-CHOH-CH3 |
| What is the Cori Cycle | -recycling of lactate -happens in muscle and liver |
| Describe the Cori Cycle | -Lactate travels from the muscle to the liver in the blood -In the liver ATP is used in gluconeogenesis to get glucose from lactate -Glucose goes back to muscle where it is potentially converted to lactate |
| What are the possible outcomes for glucose | Glycogen Pyruvate Pentose-5-phosphate |
| Describe the structure of glycogen | -Branched homopolysaccharide -Monomer=glucose -Connection: alpha1->4 branched with alpha1->6 -Found in liver and SKM |
| What is the reaction called going from glucose to glycogen | Glycogenesis |
| What is the reaction called going from glycogen to glucose | Glycogenolysis |
| Describe Metabloism of glycogen | Glucose 6-P <=> Glucose 1-P -> UDP-Glucose ->Glycogen -> Glucose 1-P |
| Glucose from glycogen enters glycolytic pathway through the action of what three enzymes | 1. Glycogen phosphorylase 2. glycogen debranching enzyme 3. phosphoglucomutase |
| In liver what converts glucose 6-P back to glucose when BG levels drop | Glucose 6-phosphatase |
| What is the starting point and where does glycogen synthesis happen | -In liver and SKM -Starting point = glucose 6-P |
| What enzyme is needed to go from glucose 6-P <=> glucose 1-P | Phosphoglucomutase |
| What enzyme is needed for Glucose 1-P + UTP <=> UDP-glucose + inorganic pyrophosphate | UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase |
| What adds glucose to a nonreducing end of a branched glycogen molecule (alpha1->4 bonds) | Glycogen synthase |
| What enzyme creates alpha1->6 branches for glycogen | Glycogen branching enzyme |
| What enzyme catalyzes the synthesis of a (alpha1->4) polyglucose primer | Glycogenin |
| What is the pathway from glucose to pentose-5-phosphate called | oxidative pentose phosphatate pathway |
| What is the pathway from pentose-5-phosphate to glucose called | non-oxidative pentose phosphate pathway |
| What are some other names for the pentose phosphate pathway | Phosphogluconate pathway Hexose monophosphate pathway |
| What is the key enzyme in non-oxidative pentose phosphate pathway | transketolase, transaldolase |
| What is the enzyme needed to go from glucose 6-P ->6-phosphogluconate | Indirectly uses gluthathione reductase -Takes the proton from NADPH using a GSSG->2 Glutathione reaction -This Allows NADP+ to be available for the glucose 6-P reaction |
| Describe the reaction of the oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway | Glucose 6-P + 2NADP + H2O -> Ribose 5-P + CO2 + 2NADPH -This happens in 4 enzymatic steps, in the cytoplasm and the first 3 steps are Mg dependent |
| What is the point of regulation of the oxidative phase of pentose phosphate pathway | The first step -glucose 6-P dehydrogenase |
| What are the enzymes needed in the oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway in order | 1. glucose 6-P dehydrogenase 2. Lactonase 3. 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase 4. Phosphopentose isomerase |
| What is the reaction of the non-oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway | 5 Ribose 5-P -> 5 Glucose 6-P |
| Describe what the non-oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway is for and where it happens | -In liver -recycling of pentose Phosphates -Is dependent on Thiamine (B1) -There is no net gain or loss of Carbon (start with 6 5C and end with 5 6C) |
| What tissues get >50% of E requirement from fat | Liver, Heart, Resting SKM |
| What is used to degrade TAG's | Intestinal Lipases |
| What is used to form mixed micelles in the small intestine out of FA's | Bile Salts |
| How do FA's move through the blood after being absorbed | In chylomicrons |
| What is used to convert TAG's to fatty acids and glycerol at the tissue | Lipoprotein Lipase, activated by apoC-II in the capillary |
| What is mobilization of stored TAG's triggered by | Glucagon (when GB is low) and Epinephrine (fight/flight) |
| What do glucagon and epinephrine lead to the activation of (in regardes to mobilization of stored TAG's) | Hormone Sensitive lipase |
| What does Hormone Sensitive lipase break TAG's down into | 3 FA's and 1 Glycerol |
| Describe how FFA are transported in blood | 1) FFA released into blood 2)FFA binds to serum Albumin 3)Plasma membrane transporters of target tissues move FFA into cells |
| Describe FA transport into Mitochondria | 1) Activation by Coenzyme A 2)Carnitine shuttle transports across inner mitochondria membrane |
| How much ATP is required to Activate a FA by coenzyme A | 2 ATP |
| What are the three stages of FA oxidation | 1) Beta Oxidation 2)Citric Acid Cycle 3)Respiratory Chain |
| Is there a limit to Beta Oxidation | It won't work anaerobically |
| Describe beta oxidation | Four enzymatic steps, 2 of them oxidative (yields 1NADH and 1FADH2). The end result is Acetyl-CoA |
| Step 1 of beta oxidation is dependent on what | Riboflavin |
| What enzyme is involved in step 1 of beta oxidation | Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase |
| What does dehydrogenase mean | A redox rxn is occurring |
| What enzyme is involved in step 2 of beta oxidation | Enoyl-CoA hydratase |
| What is the required input for the second step of beta oxidation | H2O |
| Step 3 of beta oxidation is dependent on what | Niacin |
| What enzyme is involved in step 3 of beta oxidation | beta-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase |
| Step 4 of beta oxidation is dependent on what | Pantothenic Acid |
| What enzyme is involved in step 4 of beta oxidation | Acyl-CoA acetyltransferase (tholase) |
| What is the required input of step 4 of beta oxidation | CoA-SH (free Coenzyme A) |
| How do you know how many Acetyl CoA are produced pre FA | #C/2 = #Acetyl CoA |
| What enzymes are used to process glycerol | 1) Glycerol Kinase 2) Glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase 3)triose phosphate isomerase |
| Describe the total breakdown of glycerol | Glycerol->glyceraldehyde 3-P->pyruvate->acetyl-CoA->citric acid cycle |
| How many ATP are gotten per Glycerol | 16.5-18.5 |
| Why is a high level of ketones bad | Leads to high amounts of acetone which is toxic and a drop in pH which is detrimental |
| What are two common causes of ketones | Starvation and uncontrolled diabetes |
| Where are ketones produced | Only in liver (hepatocyte |
| Describe the anabolism of ketones | -Formed from acetyl-CoA -Formed in matrix of mitochondria of hepatocytes -Exported to extrahepatic tissues for E production |
| Describe Catabolism of ketones | -Acetone must be lost -Acetoacetate, D-beta-hydroxybutyrate are transported to exrahepatic tissue where they are coverted to acetyl-CoA and used fror energy production |
| How many acetyl CoA are used in the anabolism of a ketone | 3 acetyl CoA |
| Enzymes used in the formation of ketones | 2 Acetyl-CoA -thiolase-> Acetoacetyl-CoA -HMG-CoA synthase- beta-hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl-CoA -HMG-CoA lyase-> acetoacetate |
| What are the two end products of Acetoacetate when making ketones | Acetone using acetoacetate decarboxylase and D-beta-hydroxybutyrate using D-beta-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase |
| Enzyme to go from TAG to FA and glycerol | Hormone Sensitive lipase if in adipose; lipoprotein transport if going from liver through blood and into adipose |
| Enzyme to go from FA to TAG | TAG synthesis, needs a Glycerol 3-P added in |
| How are FA's transported in the blood when coming out of adipose | Albumin |
| Describe Biosynthesis of TAG's | Synthesized from Fatty acyl-CoA and L-glycerol 3-P |
| Where is L-glycerol 3-P derived from | glycolytic intermediate digydroxy-acetone P |
| What is a common precursor for the biosynthesis of TAG's | Phosphatidic aid |
| Describe the synthesis of Phosphatidic Acid | glucos/pyruvate -> DHAP -gycerol-3-P dehydrogenase-> glycerol-3-P -acyltransferase-> Monoacylglycerol-3-P -acyltransferase-> Phosphatidic acid |
| How does a phosphatidic acid get to be a TAG | Phosphatidic acid -phosphatidic acid phosphatase-> 1,2 diacylglycerol -acyl transferase, Fatty acyl-CoA-> TAG |
| Where does the biosynthesis of FA's happen | In the cytoplasm of the liver and adipose |
| What are the prominent enzymes in the biosynthesis of FA's | FA synthase, Acetal CoA carboxylase |
| What C3 molecule is used as an intermediate of FA biosynthesis | Malonyl-CoA |
| Describe the synthesis of malonyl-CoA | HCO3+Acetyl-CoA -Acetyl-CoA carboxylase, ATP-> Malonyl-CoA |
| Describe the reaction equation to get Palmitate from from malonyl-CoA | 1 Acetyl-CoA + 7 Malonyl-CoA -14 NADPH-> Palmitate (16:0) + 7 CO2 |
| Key points for the repeating reaction sequence of FA synthesis | Saturated fatty acyl group is substrate for condensation with activated malonyl group, each cycle extends chain by 2 C, in each cycle there are 2 reductive steps (NADPH carrier) |
| How is Acetyl-CoA transported from the matrix of the mitochondria to the cytoplasm | Acetyl-CoA combines with Oxaloacetate to form citrate. Citrate is transported to the cytosol by citrate transport. Citrate is than broken back down to oxaloacetate and Acetyl-CoA |
| What enzymes are needed to get Acetyl-CoA from the matrix of the mitochondria to the cytoplasm and how many ATP | Citrate synthase and Citrate lyase. 8ATP per palmatate are needed |
| What enzymes are needed for the formation of Malonyl-CoA | Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (biotin dependent) 7ATP/palmatate |
| Enzymes needed for FA synthesis | Fatty Acid synthase, NADPH (niacin dependent) |
Created by:
bmlanger
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