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NWHSU GA Exam #4
Northwestern Health Sciences University - Gross Anatomy Exam #4 -Doctor Wallace
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Erector Spinae Muscle which inserts on the mastoid process? (be specific!!) | Longissimus Capitis |
| Erector Spinae muscle which originates from the upper ribs and inserts into the transverses processes of mid-cervical vertebrae? (be specific) | Iliocostalis Cervicis |
| Muscle originating off SPs of upper thoracic vertebrae (T3-6) and inserting on the TP's of upper cervical (C1-3)? | Splenius Cervicis |
| Suboccipital muscle that originates off the posterior tubercle of the ATLAS and inserts into the medial part of the occipital bone? | Rectus Capitus posterior MINOR |
| Muscle found throughout the length of the vertebral column; it arises from the TPs and inserts into the SPs of 2 to 5 segments above the origin? | Multifidus |
| Give two actions of the suboccipital muscles? | Bilaterally: Extension of head. Unilaterally: rotation of head to same side. |
| The effector organ of a somatic reflex arc? | Skeletal Muscle |
| Stretch reflex arc -- what I the stimulus which causes this reflex? | Myotaxis or stretch on the muscle spindle fibers |
| Stretch Reflex Arc-- Is it a contralateral reflex? If not, what is it? | No - it is an ipsilateral reflex |
| Erector Spinae muscle which originates off the lower ribs and inserts into the angles of upper ribs and TP of C7? | Iliocostalis Thoracis |
| Muscle that originates from TP's of vertebrae and inserts into SP's of vertebrae ONE segment above origin? | Short rotators |
| Muscle best developed in cervical region, also present in lumbar region -- absent in most of the thoracic area; extents vertebral column and bends column toward the same side? | Intertransversalii |
| Muscle that originates off the posterior tubercle of the atlas and inserts into the medial part of the occipital bone? | Rectus Capitus posterior minor |
| Superficial layer muscle which originates on the lower ligament nuchae and SP of upper thoracic (T1-3) and inserts on the mastoid process and adjacent occipital bone? | Splenius Muscle |
| Superficial layer of muscles that originates off of the SPs of the upper thoracics (T3-6) and inserts on the TP's of upper cervical (C1-3)? | Splenius Cervicis |
| What are the actions of the Superficial layers of the head muscles? (splenius Capitus and cervicis)? | Acting alone - laterally bend and rotate the neck (turning to face the same side). Acting together - draws back head. |
| Erector spine muscle {group} that are the most lateral column generally arising from the iliac crest and inserting on the ribs? | Iliocostalis (lumborum, Thoracis, Cervicis) |
| Which erector spinae muscle originates on the iliac crest, sacrum, thoracolumbar fascia, and inserts on the angles of the lower ribs? | The iliocostalis lumborum |
| Which erector spinae muscle originates on the lower ribs and inserts on the angles of upper ribs and TPs of C7? | Iliocostalis Thoracis |
| Which erector Spinae muscle originates off the upper ribs and inserts on the TP of mid cervicals (c4-6)? | Iliocostalis Cervicis |
| Which group of Erector Spinae muscles lie in the intermediate column, and generally run between TP's? | Longissimus (Thoracis, Cervicis, Capitis) |
| Which Erector Spinae muscle originate on the sacrum, Iliac crest, Thoracolumbar fascia, and insert on the lower 10 ribs and TP of lumbar and thoracic vertebrae? | Longissimus Thoracis |
| Which erector Spinae muscle originates off the TP of the upper thoracic vertebrae and insert on the TP of cervical vertebrae (up to C2; not including C1)? | Longissimus Cervicis |
| Which Erector Spinae Muscle originates off the TP of the upper thoracis, articular processes of lower cervical vertebrae, and inserts on the mastoid process? | Longissimus Capitus |
| Which erector Spinae group are the most medial column, running between Spinous Processes; found primarily in the thoracic region? | Spinalis group (Thoracis, Cervicis, Capitis) |
| Which erector Spinae muscle originates on the SP of the lower thoracic vertebrae and inserts on the SP of the upper Thoracic vertebrae? | Spinalis Thoracis |
| Which erector Spinae muscles are often only scant fibers? | Spinalis Cervicis |
| Which Erector Spinae muscles are now considered part of Semispinalis Capitis? | Spinalis Capitis |
| What muscle groups are included in the categorized muscle group called Trasnversospinous? | Rotators, Multifidi, and Semispinalis |
| Rotators, Multifidi, and Semispinalis muscles are categorized as _____________________. | Transversospinous Group |
| Which muscle group in the Transversospinous group are the deepest? *also found throughout the length of the columns? | The Rotators |
| Which Transversospinous muscle originates from the TP's and inserts on the SPs of the vertebrae ONE segment above the origin? | The Short Rotators |
| Which Transversospinous muscle originates on the TP's and inserts on the SP of the vertebrae TWO segments above the origin? | The Long Rotators |
| Which Transversospinous group originates on the TP's and inserts on the SPs of the vertebrae 2-5 segment above the origin? | Multifidus |
| Which group of Transversospinous group is found from T10 upward? | Semispinalis muscles (thoracis, cervicis, and Capitis) |
| Which muscle group of the Transversospinous group have an origin: TP and Insertion: SP of vertebrae six or more segments above the origin? | Semispinalis |
| Which muscle of the Transversospinous group insert on SP of upper thoracic vertebrae (T1-4)? | Semispinalis Thoracis |
| Which muscle of the Transversospinous group inserts on SP of cervical vertebrae (up to C2)? | Semispinalis Cervicis |
| Which muscle of the Transversospinous group are associated with the Occipital bone? | The Semispinalis Capitis |
| Action of the Erectors? | Muscles acting bilaterally extend column. Muscles actin on one side bend column laterally. |
| Action of the Longissimus Capitis? | Extends head and turns face to the same side |
| Action of the Transversospinous muscles? | Extend column and rotate it to the opposite side |
| Which muscle of the Transversospinous group extend between the SP of adjacent vertebrae? | Interspinalis muscles |
| Which muscle of the Transversospinous group are best developed in the cervical region (absent in the thoracic area)? | Interspinalis muscles |
| Which muscle of the Transversospinous group act to extend the vertebral column? | Interspinalis Muscles |
| Which muscle of the Transversospinous group run between the TPs of adjacent vertebrae? | Intertransversarii muscles |
| Which muscle of the Transversospinous group is best developed in the cervical region (absent in MOST of the thoracic area)? | Intertransversarii muscles |
| Which muscle of the Transversospinous group act to extend column and bend toward the same side? | Intertransversarii muscles |
| The four muscles of this group lie deep to the Semispinalis Capitis? | Suboccipital muscles |
| Which Suboccipital muscle originates on the SP of C2 and inserts on the occipital bone, inferior to the inferior nuchal line? | The Rectus Capitis Posterior Major Muscle |
| Which Suboccipital muscle originates on the posterior tubercle of C1 and inserts on the occipital bone, immediately medial to rectus Capitis posterior major? | Rectus Capitis Posterior Minor Muscle |
| Which Suboccipital muscle originates at the SP of C2 and inserts on the TP of C1? | The Obliquus Capitis Inferior |
| Which Suboccipital muscle originates on the TP of C1 and inserts on the occipital bone, near the inferior nuchal line? | The Obliquus Capitis Superior |
| List the Action of the Suboccipital muscles? | Extend and rotate the head to the same side. |
| What is the innervation of the suboccipital muscles? | The Suboccipital nerve - which is the posterior primary division of C1 |
| What muscles make up the Suboccipital Triangle? | Obliquus Capitis Superior, Obliquus Capitis Inferior, and Rectus Capitis Posterior Major |
| What structures lie within the Suboccipital Triangle? | The suboccipital Nerve and Vertebral Artery |
| All intrinsic muscles of the back are innervated by the _________________? | Posterior Primary divisions of the Spinal Nerves |
| Caranial outflow? | 3,7,9,10 |
| Combined ginglymus and plane joint? | Temperomandibular joint |
| Articular surfaces of the mandibular condyle and mandibular fossa are covered by ______________? | Fibrocartilage |
| Which reinforcing structure of the Temperomandibular joint go from the zygomatic arch to the neck of the mandible (laterally)? | The Lateral Ligament (or TM ligament) |
| Which reinforcing structure of the temperomandibular joint go from the spine of sphenoid to the ligula of the mandibular foramen? (medially) | Sphenomandibular ligament |
| Which reinforcing structure goes from the styloid process to the angle and lower posterior surface of the mandibular ramus? | Stylomandibular ligament |
| What are the 4 primary muscles of mastication? | (1) The Masseter (2) he Temporalis (3) The medial pterygoid (internal) (4) The Lateral Pterygoid (external) |
| What innervates the 4 primary muscles of mastication? | The mandibular branch of cranial nerves (Tregenial V3) |
| What muscle originates on the zygomatic arch and inserts on the angle and lateral surface of mandibular ramus? | The masseter |
| The fiber course of the masseter goes which directions? | Downward and backwards |
| Action of the masseter? | Pulls up and a little forward |
| erector spinae muscles which originates off the iliac crest, sacrum, and thoracolumbar fascia and inserts into angles of lower ribs? | Iliocostalis lumborum |
| Erector Spinae muscles which originates off the spines of the lower thoracics and upper lumbar vertebrae and inserts into the spines of upper thoracic vertebraes (BE SPECIFIC)? | Spinalis Thoracis |
| Which system consists of two neurons conducting from the central nervous system to the periphery? | The Autonomic Nervous System |
| The ANS is a _________ system? | Motor system |
| One neuron from the ANS is in the brain or spinal cord and is called a ___________________? | Preganglionic Neuron |
| One neuron (from the ANS) is located somewhere outside the CNS and is called a _______________________? | Postganglionic Neuron |
| What do the postganglionic neurons innervate? | Smooth Muscle, Cardiac Muscle, or Glands |
| Cranial outflow? | Cranial nerves 3, 7, 9, 10 |
| Cranial Nerves 3,7,9,10 are categorized as _____________ | Cranial outflow |
| Thoracolumbar outflow? | Spinal Nerves T1-L2 (L3) |
| Sacral Outflow? | S2-S4 - called pelvic splanchnic nerves or nervi erigentes |
| Cranial and sacral outflows are grouped together because there is similarity in location of their ganglia and the cranial and sacral outflows are also similar anatomically and pharmacologically. Known as ____________? | Parasympthetic Division |
| The Thoracolumbar outflow is grouped together because of similarity anatomically and pharmacologically and is spoken of as the _________________. | Sympathetic Division |
| _______________ Tend to be in or very close to the organs that hey innervate? | Parasympathetic Ganglia |
| ________________ Tend to be at some distance from the organs innervated? | Sympathetic Ganglia |
| Sympathetic Ganglia are present in the ____________________ Anterior to the vertebral extremity of each rib. | Sympathetic trunk - Paravertebral ganglia |
| Sympathetic ganglia are also present around the bases of great vessels in the abdomen as the ______________________ : celiac, superior mesenteric and inferior mesenteric ganglia) | Collateral Ganglia (prevertebral) |
| All Preganglionic fibers whether they are sympathetic or parasympathetic are ___________? | Cholinergic |
| Associated with, but NOT part of the Autonomic Nervous System are _____________? | Afferent Fibers |
| Preganglionic cell bodies are located in the _____________________________ | Intermediolateral cell column (lateral horn) |
| White Rami Communicates are whitish in color due to __________. | Myelin |
| White Rami Communicantes are only on spinal nerves: | T1-L2(L3) |
| The number of ganglia forming the sympathetic chain is approximately _________ pairs | 22 pairs |
| Sympathetic Trunk usually has ___ Cervical ganglia | 3 - superior, middle, and inferior |
| Sympathetic Trunk usually has ___ Thoracic Ganglia | 11 |
| Sympathetic Trunk usually has ____ Lumbar Ganglia | 4 |
| Sympathetic trunk usually has ______ ganglia in the sacrococcygeal region | less than 5 |
| Thoracic Splanchnic nerves - Greater Splanchnic are found where? | T5-T9 Cord Segments |
| Lesser Splanchnic nerves are found where? | T10-T11 |
| Least Splanchnic nerves are found where? | T12 |
| Lumbar Splanchnic nerves (sympathetic) are found where? | L1-L2 (L3) |
| Pelvic Splanchnic nerves are found where (parasympathetic)? | S2-S4 |
| ____________________ This system is also organized on the basis of pre- and postganglionic neurons? | Parasympathetic division of ANS |
| The Preganglionic neurons are located in nuclei of: __________________________ | Certain cranial nerves and the sacral segments of the spinal cord |
| The term rami communicantes is used only in reference to ______________________ | The Sympathetic system |
| The term ______________ is used only in reference to the sympathetic system | Rami Communicantes |
| (sympathetics to head) _________ synapse mainly in the superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic trunk? | Preganglionics |
| (sympathetics to head)__________ to head structures? | Postganglionics |
| (sympathetics to thoracic viscera) ___________ synapse in superior, middle, and inferior cervical ganglia; and upper 4 or 5 ganglia of the thoracic part of the sympathetic trunk? | Preganglionics |
| (sympathetics to thoracic viscera) ___________ via small visceral branches to thoracic viscera? | postganlionics |
| _______________ Erector Spinae muscle which originates off iliac crest, sacrum, and thoracolumbar fascia and inserts into angles of lower ribs? | Iliocostalis lumborum |
| _________________ erector spinae muscle which originates off the spines of lower thoracic and upper lumbar vertebrae and inserts into the spines of upper thoracic vertebrae? | Spinalis Thoracis |
| ___________intrinsic back muscle which originates off the transverse process of a vertebra and inserts into the spine of one or two vertebrae above? | Rotators |
| ___________ muscle that lies immediately posterior to most of the suboccipital muscles? | Semispinalis Capitis |
| ___________ muscle best developed in cervical region, also present in the lumbar region -- absent in thoracic area; act to extend the vertebral column, but does NOT bend it laterally? | Interspinalis muscles |
| ___________ muscle best developed in cervical region, also present in the lumbar region -- absent in thoracic area; Extents vertebral column and bends column toward the same side. | Intertransversarii muscles |
| Besides being 3 sensory neuron relay, list 4 general principles about different tracts to the cerebral cortex? | (1) 2nd neuron Decissatis (2) discriminating awareness occurs in cerebral cortex (3) crude awareness occurs in thalamus (4) principle of divergence |
| _____________ the effector organ of a somatic reflex arc? | Skeletal muscles |
| What is meant by an intersegmental reflex? | reflex involves more than 1 spinal segment |
| _________________ innervation of the deep intrinsic back muscles? | posterior primary division of the spinal nerves |
| _______________ Erector spinae muscle which inserts on the mastoid process | Longissimus Capitus |
| _____________ muscle which originates off the SP of axis and inserts on the TP of the atlas? | Oblique Capitus Inferior |
| Discuss the MOVEMENTS of the articular dis and condyle of the TM joint during opening the mouth? | The articular disk and mandibular condyle protract in a downward motion until they lie underneath the mandibular foramen. Protraction in a hinge (joint) motion |
| Name the ligaments responsible for reinforcing the teporomandibular joint? | (1) Lateral Ligament (2) Sphenomandibular ligament (3) Stylomandibular ligament |
| Describe the basic structure of the temperomandibular joint (be detailed and complete)!! | The joint is made up of the mandibular notch &the mandibular foramen,which both are covered by fibrocart.The fibrocartilangenous disc,known as the articular disc,seperates the joint capsule into superior &inferior portions.(Known as the hinge&plate joint) |
| Give data for the lateral pterygoid (give MAJOR action): | Protraction of the jaw |
| Give data for the temporalis (give 2 actions): | (1) retraction of the jaw (2) Elevation of the mandible |
| Besides drawing the head posteriorly, give 2 actions of splenius Capitis: | (1) rotate the head to the same side (2) bends the head laterally |
| What is meant by an ipsilateral reflex? | impulse + effector on the same side of the body (afferent and Efferent on same side) |
| ______________ the effector organ of a somatic reflex arc? | Skeletal muscle |
| Discuss in detail how most sympathetic are supplied to thoracic viscera. you may begin with the white ramus communicans. BE SPECIFIC AND COMPLETE!! | Preganglionic synapse in the superior, middle, and inferior cervical ganglia and C1-4 ganglia of the sympathetic trunk. Postganglionics - Go through the thoracic viscera |
| Define Reflex? | Involuntary movemen or exercise of function in a part produced in response to an excitation caused by a peripheral (peripheral to CNS) stimulus |
| What is the simplest reflex pattern? | sensory neuron --> motor neuron --> Effector neuron --> involuntary response |
| Define Reflex Arc? | Series of anatomical parts trough which the reflex impulse travels (ie the route of the reflex impulse) |
| ______________ contains cell bodies (perikarya) of GSE motor neurons --> skeletal muscle | Anterior horn (GSE motor function) |
| _____________ contains prefanflionic GVE cell bodies o autonomic nervous system | Lateral horn (GVE motor functions |
| Cell bodies of preganglionic sympathetic neurons are present where? | T1-L2 (L3)Spinal Cord Levels |
| Cell bodies of preganglionic Parasympathetic neurons are present where? | S2-4 spinal cord levels |
| _____________________ contains cell bodies of certain tract neurons, interneurons, etc. | Posterior Horn (GSA, GVA Sensory function) |
| ________________ contains sensory fibers entering spinal cord | Dorsal root with dorsal root ganglion |
| _________ contains motor fibers leaving spinal cord | the ventral root |
| ________________________ Represents fused dorsal and ventral roots; contains both sensory fibers entering cord and motor fibers leaving cord | Complete (mixed) spinal nerves |
| somatic reflex arcs produce contractions of _____________ | Skeletal muscle |
| List the three somatic reflex arcs? | (1) stretch reflex (2) Flexor reflex (3) Crossed-extensor reflex |
| Where are the afferent and efferent neurons located in the stretch reflex? | afferent sensory neuron - cell body in dorsal root ganglion. Efferent motor neuron - cell body in anterior horn |
| what kind of stimulus is produced from the stretch reflex? | myotatic stimulus |
| Flexor reflex? | stimulous is usually superficial. reflex is a protective withdrawal through the contraction of flexor muscles. eg. removal of finger from a hot object |
| stretch reflex? | increased stretching may be due to external pressure exerted on a tendon (eg. knee jerk reflex) |
| Crossed-extensor reflex? | Stimulus causes contraction of extensor muscles on opposite side of body |
| _______________ reflex in which center of the reflex arc lies in the spinal cord? | Spinal cord reflex |
| _______________ any reflex produced by stimulating a deep structure (eg. a tendon or bone) | Deep reflex |
| ___________ is a deep reflex in which a tendon is stimulated | Tendon reflex |
| __________________________ a reflex controlled by a single segment of the cord (eg L2) | Intrasegmental (unisegmented) reflex |
| _____________________ a reflex controlled by more than one segment of the ford (eg. L2-4) | Intersegmental (multisegmental) reflex |
| ________________ stimulation on one side of the body causes a response on the opposite side? | Crossed (contralateral) reflex |
| ________________ response occurs on the same side of body as the stimulus | Ipsilateral Reflex |
| _______________ response to stimulus is done by extensor muscles | Extensor reflex |
| _____________________ response to stimulus is done by flexor muscles | Flexor reflex |
| Define Spinal cord reflex? | Reflex in which center of the reflex arc lies in the spinal cord |
| Define Deep reflex? | any reflex produced by stimulating a deep structure (bone or tendon) |
| Define Tendon Reflex? | is a deep reflex in which a tendon is stimulated |
| Define intrasegmental (unisegmented) reflex? | a reflex controlled by a single segment of the cord (eg L2) |
| Define Intersegmental (multisegmented) reflex? | A reflex controlled by more than one segment of the cord (eg. L2-4) |
| Define crossed (contralateral) reflex? | stimulation on one side of the body causes a response on the opposite side |
| Define ipsilateral Reflex? | response occurs on the same side of the body as the stimulus |
| Define Extensor Reflex? | Response to a stimulus is done by the extensor muscles |
| Define Flexor Reflex? | Response to a stimulus is done by the flexor muscles |
| What is the spinothalamic tract for? | for pain, temperature, pressure and crude touch |
| What is the posterior white column-medial lemniscal system for? | discriminating touch and proprioception |
| List the 5 general principles about afferent tracts to the cerebral cortex? | (1) 3-neuron relay conducts impulses (2)Crude awareness of sensations occurs in the thalamus (3)Discriminating awareness of sensations occurs in the cerebral cortex (4) sensory neuron II decussate (5) "principle of divergence" |
| What is the "Principles of the common path"? | motor neurons in the anterior gray horns of spinal cord are the FINAL common path for impulses to skeletal muscles |
| What is the "Principle of Convergence"? | Axons from many neurons converge to synapse with each anterior motor neuron |
| Define the pyramidal tract? | tract whose axon fibers travel through the pyramids of the medulla oblongata on their way to the spinal cord |
| ______________ tract whose axon fibers travel through the pyramids of the medulla oblongata on their way to the spinal cord? | The Pyramidal Tract |
| ________________ specific tract which conducts proprioception and fine touch? | Posterior White column |
| Posterior white column is a specific tract that conducts what? | Proprioceptors and Discriminating touch |
| ____________ specific tract used for pain, pressure, temp and crude touch | Spinalthalamic tract |
| The Spinalthalamic tract is used for what? | pain, pressure, temperature, and crude touch |
| Discuss in detail how most sympathetics are supplied to thoracic viscera. you may begin with the white ramus communicans. BE SPECIFIC AND COMPLETE!! | Preganglionics will synapse in superior, middle, and inferior cervical sympathetic ganglia as well as the first 4-5 thoracic sympathetic ganglia then postganglionic will go to thoracic viscera via small visceral branches |
| What are the spinal cord segments for the greater splanchnic nerve? Lumbar splanchnics? | T5-9; L1-L2(L3) |
| ____________ pharmacological classification of preganglionic sympathetic fibers? | Cholineraic |
| Parasympathetics have _____ preganglionic fibers. both sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic fibers are ____________. | LONG; MYELINATED |
| Upon opening the moth, a patients jaw involuntary deviates to the right. this would indicate a possible lack of function of the ___________ of the _______ side. | Lateral Pterygoid; right side |
| Out of the 4 major muscles of mastication, which is/are capable of elevating the mandible? | Temporalis M., Masseter M., Medial Pterygoid |
| Out of the 4 major muscles of mastication, which is/are capable of depressing the mandible? | Lateral Pterygoid |
| Give the SPECIFIC named area of the attachment of the mandible for the lateral ligament? | lateral surface of neck of ramus of mandible |
| Name the structure(s) transmitted by the condylar/condyloid canal? | emissary vein |
| Name the structure(s) transmitted by the foramen rotundum? | CN V2 |
| Name the structure(s) transmitted by the cribriform plate? | CN I |
| Muscle that elevates hyoid bone. floor of the mouth and tongue during swallowing? | Mylohyoid |
| Innervation of the anterior belly of digastric? | CN V (5) |
| Suture present in fetus; usually disappears in adult? | Frontal Suture |
| _____ Cranial nerve that supplies the lacrimal gland, sublingual gland, etc | CN VII (7) |
| _____ The Sensory ONLY cranial nerves? | 1,2,8 |
| ________ named portion of the temporal bone containing the inner ear? | Detrous |
| __________ name given to the closed posterolatral fontanelle? | Asterion |
| _______ smooth area in midline between the 2 superciliary arches? | Glabella |
| _________________ forms part of the bony nasal septum, articulates with the vomer inferiorly? | Perpedicular plate of ethmoid bone |
| ___________ a pair of boney projections for muscle attachments on the anterior inner surface of the mandible? | Mental spines |
| __________ insertion of the posterior scalene muscle | second rib |
| innervation of posterior belly of the digastric? | CN 7 |
| ____________ the MOTOR ONLY cranial nerves | CN 3,4,6,11,12 |
| _______ cranial nerve that supplies only the superior oblique muscle? | CN4 |
| Name the structure(s) transmitted by the foramen rotundum? | CN 5 (trigeminal division 2 - V2) |
| Name the structure(s) transmitted by the mandibular foramen? | Interior alveolar artery and mandibular N.A.V. |
| _____________ name given to the CLOSED anterior fontanelle? | Bregma |
| __________ part of bony nasal septum that articulates with the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid? | Vomer |
| ___________ a deep horizontal groove extending from the internal occipital protuberance and joining the "sulcus for the sigmoid sinus" | Sulcus for the transverse sinus |
| __________ ridge over each orbit? | Supracilliary arch |
| _________ part of sphenoid on which the hypophyseal fossa is located; this part is also known as "turk's saddle"? | Sella turcica |
| ___________ pair of projections for muscle attachments on the anterior inner surface of the mandible? | Mental spine |
| ____________ midline projection in anterior cranial cavity falx crebri, a sheet of dura attaches here; also known as the "cock's comb" | Cristae galli |
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