Integrative Physiology Ch. 7 - Introduction to the Endocrine System
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| Endocrinology | show 🗑
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| show | A chemical secreted by a cell or group of cells into the blood for transport to a distant target, where it exerts its effect at very low concentrations
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| show | Growth/development, metabolism, regulation of the internal environment (temp., water balance, ions), and reproduction
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| Hormones act on their targets in one of three basic ways | show 🗑
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| The first documented association between endocrine structure and function was probably… | show 🗑
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| show | Hormones of the pancreas, thyroid, adrenal glands, pituitary, and gonads – discrete endocrine glands that can be easily identified and surgically removed
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| show | …Isolated (diffuse) endocrine cells; by neurons (neurohormones); and by cells of the immune system (cytokines)
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| Key for gland/hormone summary: [P], [A], [S] | show 🗑
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| show | Oxytocin [P]; vasopressin (ADH)
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| show | Oxytocin: breast and uterus; vasopressin: kidney
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| Posterior pituitary: Main effects | show 🗑
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| Anterior pituitary: hormones | show 🗑
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| show | Prolactin: breast; GH: liver and many tissues; ACTH: adrenal cortex; TSH: thyroid gland; FSH: gonads; LH: gonads
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| Anterior pituitary: main effects for prolactin, GH, ACTH, TSH | show 🗑
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| show | FSH: egg or sperm production, sex hormone production; LH: sex hormone production, egg or sperm production
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| show | Triiodothyronine and thyroxine [A]; calcitonin [P]
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| Thyroid gland: primary targets | show 🗑
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| show | Triiodothyronine and thyroxine: metabolism, growth, and development; calcitonin: plasma calcium levels (minimal effect in humans)
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| Heart: hormones | show 🗑
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| show | Atrial natriuretic peptide: kidneys
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| show | Atrial natriuretic peptide: increases Na+ excretion
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| Liver: hormones | show 🗑
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| Liver: primary targets | show 🗑
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| show | Angiotensinogen: aldosterone secretion, increases blood pressure; insulin-like growth factors: growth
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| Pancreas: hormones | show 🗑
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| show | Insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide: many tissues
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| Pancreas: main effects | show 🗑
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| show | [All S:] aldosterone; cortisol; androgens
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| Adrenal cortex: primary targets | show 🗑
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| Adrenal cortex: main effects | show 🗑
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| Adrenal medulla: hormones | show 🗑
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| show | Epinephrine, norepinephrine: many tissues
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| Adrenal medulla: main effects | show 🗑
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| show | The movement of a substance from the intracellular compartment either to the extracellular compartment or to the external environment
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| show | The term given to hormones that are secreted into the external environment
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| show | Specialized ectohormones that act on other organisms of the same species to elicit a physiological or behavioral response. E.g. ants release pheromones to attract fellow workers to food sources
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| show | Pheromones that are used to attract members of the opposite sex for mating purposes. They can be found throughout the animal kingdom, in animals from fruit flies to dogs
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| show | The question is still a matter of debate. Some studies hint that axillary (armpit) sweat glands secrete hormones that might serve as sex pheromones. A study showed females preferred the smell of more genetically diverse men
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| show | Molecules suspected of being hormones but not fully accepted as such (e.g. not sufficiently that it travels long distances to target cells) are called candidate hormones
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| show | They’re usually identified by the word “factor”, e.g. growth factor
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| Growth factors | show 🗑
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| Another example of a candidate hormone | show 🗑
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| show | A molecule may act like a hormone when secreted from one location but as a paracrine or autocrine signal when secreted from another location
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| The concentration range at which hormones are able to act | show 🗑
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| Are all chemical signals transported in the blood to distant targets considered hormones? | show 🗑
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| All hormones bind to target cells and initiate biological responses. These responses are known as the _____ of the hormone | show 🗑
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| What happens to hormones that are circulating in the blood if they’re taken up by a cell? | show 🗑
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| Half-life of a hormone in circulation | show 🗑
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| show | Enzymes that are always present in the plasma can degrade peptide hormones bound to cell membrane receptors. Also, some cells bring in the hormone-receptor complex into the cell via endocytosis and then digested
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| How do cells terminate the actions of hormones that have made it into the cell’s ICF? | show 🗑
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| Three main chemical classes of hormones and brief descriptions | show 🗑
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| show | Peptide/protein hormones
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| show | Huge size variability: ranging from three amino acids to larger proteins and glycoproteins. How to identify them? By exclusion: if they’re not steroid hormones nor amino acid derivatives, they’re peptide hormones
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| Preprohormones | show 🗑
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| What happens to the preprohormone immediately upon being produced by the ribosome? | show 🗑
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| show | In the ER, the signal sequence is removed creating a smaller, still inactive *prohormone*. In the Golgi, the prohormone is packaged into secretory vesicles along with proteolytic enzymes
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| show | Post-translational modification
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| show | The proteolytic enzymes chop the prohormone into active hormone and other fragments
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| show | They are stored in the cytoplasm of the endocrine cell until the cell receives a signal for secretion. At that time they’ll move to the cell membrane to be released via calcium-dependent exocytosis
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| Co-secretion | show 🗑
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| show | It contains multiple copies of its hormone
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| Interesting discovery relating to proopiomelanocortin | show 🗑
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| Can the inactive fragments of proteolyzed prohormones be clinically useful? | show 🗑
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| show | Peptide hormones are water soluble and therefore generally dissolve easily in the ECF for transport throughout the body
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| Half life of a peptide hormone and the significance? | show 🗑
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| Are peptide hormones able to enter their target cell? | show 🗑
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| How do peptide hormones create a response in a cell? | show 🗑
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| What kind of changes to peptide hormones create? | show 🗑
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| show | If the second-messenger system activates genes and directs synthesis of new proteins then the effects are longer-lasting. Some peptide hormones do this, most don’t.
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| show | Endothelium is just simple squamos epithelium that lines organs and blood vessels INSIDE the body. Just remember that the thin lining of tissues INSIDE the body is usually endothelial
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| show | Unlike peptide hormones, which are made in tissues all over the body, steroid hormones are made only in a few organs: three types are made in the adrenal cortex, sex steroids are produced in the gonads; and placenta in pregnancy
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| Where is the adrenal cortex | show 🗑
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| show | They have unusually large amounts of smooth ER, the organelle where the steroid hormones are produced.
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| Are steroid hormones stored in advance in secretory vesicles like peptide hormones? | show 🗑
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| How are steroid hormones secreted by the cell? | show 🗑
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| show | They must bind to carrier proteins to travel through the ECF and reach their target? Why? Because unlike peptide hormones, steroid hormones are not soluble in the ECF.
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| show | Some steroid hormones have specific carriers, such as corticosteroid-binding globulin. Others simply bind to plasma proteins, such as albumin.
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| show | The binding of a steroid to a carrier protein protects the hormone from enzymatic degradation and results in an extended half-life. E.g. cortisol’s half-life is 60-90 minutes while epinephrine’s is measured in seconds
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| Can steroid hormones diffuse into their target cells? | show 🗑
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| show | Inside the cytoplasm or nucleus of the target cells.
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| show | The nucleus, where the complex acts as a transcription factor, binding to DNA and either activating or repressing (turning off) one or more genes.
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| show | Genomic effect
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| Response time for the biological effects to occur for released steroid hormones that have genomic effects | show 🗑
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| Steroids with nongenomic responses | show 🗑
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| Review: what is the parent compound for all steroid hormones? | show 🗑
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| show | Aldosterone: adrenal cortex. Cortisol: adrenal cortex. Estradiol (an estrogen): ovary
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| Amino acid-derived hormones | show 🗑
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| show | Catecholamines have one tyrosine molecule; thyroid hormones have two AND iodine atoms
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| Catecholamines | show 🗑
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| show | Produced by the thyroid gland in the neck, behave more like steroid hormones, with intracellular receptors that activate genes
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| show | Stimulus, input signal, integration of the signal, output signal, and response
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| show | A hormone or neurohormone. E.g., insulin is the output signal and the pancreatic cells constitute the integrating center (they have to integrate various reflexes from the nervous system and blood to “decide” output)
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| show | Pathways in which an endocrine cell directly senses a stimulus and responds by secreting its hormone. In this type of pathway, the endocrine cell acts as both sensor (receptor) and integrating center
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| Examples of hormones that operates via the simple endocrine reflex | show 🗑
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| Parathyroid endocrine cells: where are they and what do they do? | show 🗑
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| show | When a lot of Ca^2+ receptors are bound to Ca^2+, PTH secretion is inhibited. If Ca^2+ is low, PTH is secreted. PTH travels through the blood to act on bone/kidney/intestine, initiating Ca^2+ absorption responses in cells
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| How does the nervous system lead to the secretion of hormones? | show 🗑
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| show | Pituitary gland and pineal gland
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| show | Stretch receptor in the digestive tract causes afferent neuron to send signal to brain which then sends signal to pancreas via efferent neuron to secrete more insulin. Note: now pancreas has two different pathways to integrate
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| The human nervous system produces three major groups of neurohormones: | show 🗑
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| Note: another (non-major, I guess) endocrine gland located in the brain and its related neurohormone | show 🗑
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| Pituitary gland | show 🗑
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| Anatomy of pituitary gland: infundibulum | show 🗑
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| Anatomy of pituitary gland: sphenoid bone | show 🗑
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| show | It’s comprised of two different tissue types that merged during embryonic development: the anterior pituitary (located closer to the front of head) and the posterior pituitary (located closer to the back of head)
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| show | A true endocrine gland of epithelial origin, derived from embryonic tissue that formed the roof of the mouth. The anterior pituitary is AKA the adenohypophysis and its hormones are adenohypophyseal secretions
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| Posterior pituitary | show 🗑
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| The two neurohormones stored and released in the posterior pituitary: | show 🗑
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| Where are the two neurohormones which are stored/secreted in the posterior pituitary initially synthesized? | show 🗑
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| After oxytocin and vasopressin are synthesized in the hypothalamus, how do they make their way down into the posterior pituitary? | show 🗑
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| show | When a stimulus reaches the hypothalamus, and electrical signal passes from the neuron cell body to the distal (distant) end of the cell in the posterior pituitary, and the vesicle contents are released into the circulation
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| How many amino acids is each of the posterior pituitary neurohormones comprised of? | show 🗑
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| show | AKA antidiuretic hormone, or ADH, regulates water balance in the body.
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| show | In women, oxytocin released from the posterior pituitary controls the ejection of milk during breast-feeding and contractions of the uterus during labor and delivery
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| show | Some neurons release oxytocin as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator onto neurons in other parts of the brain. Some postulate that autism may be related to defects in the normal oxytocin-modulated pathways of the brain
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| show | prolactin (PRL), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), growth hormone (GH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH)
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| What controls secretion of all hormones of the anterior pituitary? | show 🗑
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| Trophic hormone; which hypothalamic and anterior pituitary hormones are trophic? | show 🗑
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| show | Even though they’re all trophic hormones, for historical reasons they’re given the names “releasing” (-RH) and “inhibiting” (-IH) hormones. E.g. “growth hormone-inhibiting hormone”.
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| show | Prolactin, which directly targets the breast
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| show | The hypothalamus secretes a hypothalamic hormone “releasing” or “inhibiting” hormone whose target is endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary; the anterior pituitary then secretes a hormone that targets an endocrine gland
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| Once the anterior pituitary hormone reaches the endocrine gland in the body… | show 🗑
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| show | Instead of the response acting as the negative feedback signal, the hormones themselves are the feedback signal. Each hormone feeds back to suppress hormone secretion by integration centers earlier in the reflex pathway
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| Long-loop negative feedback | show 🗑
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| Short-loop negative feedback | show 🗑
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| show | A specialized region of the circulation consisting of two sets of capillaries directly connect by a set of larger blood vessels
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| show | One in the kidneys, one in the digestive system, and one in the brain
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| Hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system | show 🗑
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| show | A much smaller amount of hormone can be secreted to elicit a given level of response because the blood volume flowing through is so small. The same amount of hormone in a normal blood vessel would be too dilute
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| show | Higher concentration. A small number of neurosecretory neurons in the hypothalamus can control the anterior pituitary
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| show | Metabolism, growth, and reproduction
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| Prolactin (PRL) | show 🗑
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| Growth hormone (GH), AKA somatotropin | show 🗑
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| show | Includes the follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. They have effects on the testes and ovaries
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| show | Controls hormone synthesis and secretion in the thyroid gland
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| Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) | show 🗑
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| Three types of hormone interaction | show 🗑
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| Synergism | show 🗑
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| Synergism is AKA… | show 🗑
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| Mechanism behind synergism | show 🗑
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| Permissiveness | show 🗑
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| Example of permissiveness | show 🗑
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| Mechanism behind permissiveness | show 🗑
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| Antagonism | show 🗑
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| show | Competitive inhibitors, where two molecules compete for the same receptor. Used in pharmacology; e.g. the estrogen receptor antagonist tamoxifen, which is used to treat breast cancers that are stimulated by estrogen
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| show | Two hormones that have opposing physiological actions. E.g. glucagon and growth hormone both raise glucose levels whereas insulin decreases it, thus they’re antagonistic to each other
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| show | Not necessarily. They may act through different metabolic pathways, or one may decrease the number of receptors for the opposing hormone.
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| Three basic patterns of endocrine pathology: | show 🗑
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| Hypersecretion | show 🗑
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| show | Numerous causes including benign tumors (adenomas) and cancerous tumors of the endocrine glands. Occasionally nonendocrine tumors secrete hormones
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| Exogenous | show 🗑
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| show | Coming from inside the body
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| A condition that is iatrogenic means… | show 🗑
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| show | The cortisol will feedback negatively to the hypothalamus and stop the production of CRH. As a result cortisol production would shut down. If the adrenal cortex is starved of cortisol long enough, the glands will atrophy
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| show | Loss of cell mass; in the previous example with excess endogenous cortisol, the endocrine cells of the adrenal glands shrink and lose their ability to manufacture ACTH, i.e. the adrenal gland atrophies
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| Can atrophied glands regain function after the administration of exogenous sources of a hormone? | show 🗑
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| show | Too little hormone is secreted, causing symptoms of hormone deficiency.
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| show | Insufficient diet in iodine will make the thyroid unable to manufacture the iodinated thyroid hormone
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| Most common cause of hyposecretion | show 🗑
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| How is negative feedback pathways affected in hyposecretion? | show 🗑
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| show | The adrenal cortex atrophies in tuberculosis and cortisol production decreases. The hypothalamus and anterior pituitary will then secrete more CRH and ACTH in an attempt to stimulate the adrenal gland into making more cortisol
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| show | When the hormones exist in normal concentrations but the tissue isn’t responsive. This can be due to receptor or second messenger problems
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| Down regulation | show 🗑
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| show | Classic example of down-regulation. Sustained high levels of insulin cause target cells to remove insulin receptors from their cell membrane. Signs of diabetes, even though insulin levels may be high, will result
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| Receptor abnormalities | show 🗑
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| Testicular feminizing syndrome | show 🗑
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| Signal transduction pathway abnormalities | show 🗑
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| Pseudohypoparathyroidism | show 🗑
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| UNDERSTAND FIGURE ON PAGE 237 | show 🗑
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| Primary pathology | show 🗑
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| Example of primary pathology | show 🗑
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| show | If a dysfunction occurs in one of the tissues producing trophic hormones, the problem is secondary pathology.
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| show | The pituitary is damaged because of head trauma and ACTH secretion diminishes. The resulting cortisol deficiency is considered to be secondary hyposecretion of cortisol
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| show | The cause of a disease
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| show | Hypothalamic: rare. Anterior pituitary: about 2/3 of all cortisol hypersecretion syndromes.
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| Two possible explanations in a primary disorder | show 🗑
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| show | The normal control pathways are totally unaffected. The excess cortisol shuts off hypothalamic and anterior pituitary cortisol production via negative feedback, but the tumor is not reliant upon their signals
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| show | As scientists sequence the genomes of diverse species, they are discovering that in many cases hormone structure and function have changed amazingly little from primitive vertebrates through the mammals
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| How is modern insulin produced | show 🗑
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| show | Calcitonin which is found in fish and plays a major role in their metabolism, is also in humans and apparently has no role
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| Some endocrine structures that are important in lower vertebrates are vestigial in humans, meaning… | show 🗑
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| Example of vestigial structure in humans | show 🗑
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| Comparative endocrinology | show 🗑
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| show | The “darkness hormone” secreted at night as we sleep. It is the chemical messenger that transmits information about light-dark cycles to the brain center that governs the body’s biological clock
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| Grave’s disease | show 🗑
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| Graves’ disease effect on relevant hormone levels in the blood | show 🗑
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| Hypothalamic-anterior pituitary pathway, target: breast | show 🗑
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| show | TRH (thyroid releasing hormone) -> TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) -> [thyroid gland] -> thyroid hormones -> [[many tissues]]
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| Hypothalamic-anterior pituitary pathway, target: adrenal cortex | show 🗑
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| Hypothalamic-anterior pituitary pathway, target: Liver | show 🗑
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| Hypothalamic-anterior pituitary pathway, target: endocrine cells of the gonads | show 🗑
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| Insulin release requires phosphorylation by: | show 🗑
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| show | The process of moving the protein throughout the ER. Hence “cotranslational translocation” which occurs in the ER
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| show | RER: cotranslational translocation -> Golgi: prohormone processing -> cytosol: storage in immature secretory granules (hydrophilic so can be stored); exocytosis via mature granules (way after synthesis, stored long term)
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| show | Pro-insulin is a single “curly-Q”-looking unit. During post-translational modification a large portion called “C-peptide” is snipped off and all that remains are two strands linked by multiple disulfide bonds (cysteines) = insulin
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| What enzymes are involved in snipping proinsulin to insulin? | show 🗑
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| Prohormone for ACTH | show 🗑
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| show | Snipped to *6 copies* of TRH as well as some other peptides and a signal sequence
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| Parent of steroids | show 🗑
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| show | Adrenal cortex and testes/ovaries
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| show | Mobilizing glucose stores in the body during fasting
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| show | Controls sodium reabsorption – too much reabsorption will result in too much in the blood, more fluid being retained and ultimately increased pressure
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| show | Cholesterol is shuttled first to the mitochondria where it’s converted to an intermediate. The intermediate is sent to the ER where it’s modified. Then sent back to mitochondria. Then immediately synthesized, diffuses through membrane
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| show | …steroidogenic cell.
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| Difference between steroidogenic and peptide-synthesizing cells | show 🗑
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| show | Carriers since they’re lipophilic
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| show | Bind straight to DNA; bind to receptor in nucleus; bind to receptor in cytosol; or bind to cell surface receptor
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| show | Binds directly to receptor located ON DNA!
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| show | Tyrosine
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| show | Peptide: short, steroid: long (especially when it directly affects gene expression)
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| Three catecholamines | show 🗑
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| show | Thyroxine, triiodothyronine
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| Overall structural difference between thyroid hormones and catecholamines | show 🗑
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| Conversion of tyrosine to dopamine | show 🗑
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| Conversion of dopamine to norepinephrine | show 🗑
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| show | Convert primary amine to secondary amine by turning one of the H’s into a methyl group
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| show | A benzene with two hydroxyls next to each other is the basis for the molecule “catechol”. And of course there’s an amino on the opposite side of the molecule.
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| What do you call a cell that can produce catecholamines? | show 🗑
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| show | Catecholaminergic pathways
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| show | Peptinergic cells
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| What happens if a neuron continuously secretes norepinephrine? | show 🗑
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| show | Norepinephrine
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| Unique part about thyroid hormones | show 🗑
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| show | Tyrosine -> dopamine -> stored in hydrophilic granules -> secreted long after creation via exocytosis
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| Compare catecholamines and thyroid hormones to peptide and steroid hormones | show 🗑
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| One of the peptide hormones stored in the adrenal medulla | show 🗑
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| Difference between catecholamine and peptide hormone | show 🗑
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| show | Precursors. The fact that these are stored in secretory vesicles is the only difference between that of steroid hormones
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| Transcriptome | show 🗑
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| Is the anterior/posterior pituitary part of the brain? | show 🗑
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| show | Cells that release growth hormones
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| Effects of glucocorticoids from chronic stress | show 🗑
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| show | Retention of sodium and water, increased blood pressure and blood volume
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| Effects of catecholamines from short term stress response | show 🗑
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| show | Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
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| All hypothalamic hormones are _____ hormones | show 🗑
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| show | 3: Glutamic acid – histidine – proline
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| Why is the small size of TRH significant | show 🗑
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| show | Their C-terminus is not a carboxylic acid, it’s an amide; the OH is replaced by NH2
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| Enzyme discovered by professor | show 🗑
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| High levels of cortisol do a good thing and a bad thing | show 🗑
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| show | Corticotrophs
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|
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To hide the entire table, click on the "Hide All" button.
You may also shuffle the rows of the table by clicking on the "Shuffle" button.
Or sort by any of the columns using the down arrow next to any column heading.
If you know all the data on any row, you can temporarily remove it by tapping the trash can to the right of the row.
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Created by:
Intellex_
Popular Physiology sets