Integrative Physiology Ch. 7 - Introduction to the Endocrine System
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| Endocrinology | show 🗑
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| show | A chemical secreted by a cell or group of cells into the blood for transport to a distant target, where it exerts its effect at very low concentrations
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| Processes that usually fall under hormonal control include: | show 🗑
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| show | (1) by controlling the rates of enzymatic reactions; (2) by controlling the transport of ions or molecules across cell membranes; or (3) by controlling gene expression and the synthesis of proteins
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| show | …castration which illustrated the link between the testes and male sexuality. It was a common practice in both Eastern and Western cultures because it decreased male sexuality and made them infertile
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| show | Hormones of the pancreas, thyroid, adrenal glands, pituitary, and gonads – discrete endocrine glands that can be easily identified and surgically removed
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| show | …Isolated (diffuse) endocrine cells; by neurons (neurohormones); and by cells of the immune system (cytokines)
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| Key for gland/hormone summary: [P], [A], [S] | show 🗑
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| Posterior pituitary: hormones | show 🗑
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| Posterior pituitary: Primary targets | show 🗑
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| show | Oxytocin: milk ejection, labor and delivery, behavior; vasopressin: water reabsorption
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| Anterior pituitary: hormones | show 🗑
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| show | Prolactin: breast; GH: liver and many tissues; ACTH: adrenal cortex; TSH: thyroid gland; FSH: gonads; LH: gonads
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| show | Prolactin: milk production; GH: growth factor secretion, growth, and metabolism; ACTH: cortisol release; TSH: thyroid hormone synthesis
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| show | FSH: egg or sperm production, sex hormone production; LH: sex hormone production, egg or sperm production
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| show | Triiodothyronine and thyroxine [A]; calcitonin [P]
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| Thyroid gland: primary targets | show 🗑
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| show | Triiodothyronine and thyroxine: metabolism, growth, and development; calcitonin: plasma calcium levels (minimal effect in humans)
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| show | Atrial natriuretic peptide [P]
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| Heart: primary targets | show 🗑
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| show | Atrial natriuretic peptide: increases Na+ excretion
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| Liver: hormones | show 🗑
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| show | Angiotensinogen: adrenal cortex, blood vessels; insulin-like growth factors: many tissues
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| show | Angiotensinogen: aldosterone secretion, increases blood pressure; insulin-like growth factors: growth
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| Pancreas: hormones | show 🗑
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| show | Insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide: many tissues
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| show | Insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide: metabolism of glucose and other nutrients
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| show | [All S:] aldosterone; cortisol; androgens
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| Adrenal cortex: primary targets | show 🗑
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| show | Aldosterone: Na+ and K+ homeostasis; cortisol: stress response; androgens: sex drive in females
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| Adrenal medulla: hormones | show 🗑
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| Adrenal medulla: primary target | show 🗑
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| show | Epinephrine, norepinephrine: Fight or flight response
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| Secretion | show 🗑
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| Ectohormone | show 🗑
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| Pheromones | show 🗑
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| Sex pheromones | show 🗑
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| show | The question is still a matter of debate. Some studies hint that axillary (armpit) sweat glands secrete hormones that might serve as sex pheromones. A study showed females preferred the smell of more genetically diverse men
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| Candidate hormones | show 🗑
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| show | They’re usually identified by the word “factor”, e.g. growth factor
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| Growth factors | show 🗑
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| Another example of a candidate hormone | show 🗑
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| What complicates the classification of signal molecules | show 🗑
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| The concentration range at which hormones are able to act | show 🗑
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| show | No, some don’t meet the low concentration requirement: that is, they need to be too high in concentration to act to be considered a hormone. E.g., histamine isn’t a hormone for this reason
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| All hormones bind to target cells and initiate biological responses. These responses are known as the _____ of the hormone | show 🗑
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| show | They’re degraded into inactive metabolites by enzymes primarily found in the liver and kidneys, and then excreted in either the bile or the urine
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| show | Indicates the rate of hormone breakdown in circulation; it is defined as the amount of time required to reduced the concentration of the hormone by one half
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| How do cells terminate the action of hormones already bounded to receptors? | show 🗑
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| show | Intracellular enzymes metabolize them
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| show | Peptide/protein hormones: composed of linked amino acids; steroid hormones: derived from cholesterol; and amino-acid derived hormones: modifications of single amino acids, either tryptophan or tyrosine
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| Most hormones are of which chemical class of hormones? | show 🗑
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| show | Huge size variability: ranging from three amino acids to larger proteins and glycoproteins. How to identify them? By exclusion: if they’re not steroid hormones nor amino acid derivatives, they’re peptide hormones
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| show | The initial, inactive peptide that comes off the ribosome at the beginning of hormone production.
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| show | A signal sequence directs the protein into the lumen of the rough ER
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| show | In the ER, the signal sequence is removed creating a smaller, still inactive *prohormone*. In the Golgi, the prohormone is packaged into secretory vesicles along with proteolytic enzymes
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| show | Post-translational modification
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| Post-translational modification | show 🗑
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| show | They are stored in the cytoplasm of the endocrine cell until the cell receives a signal for secretion. At that time they’ll move to the cell membrane to be released via calcium-dependent exocytosis
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| Co-secretion | show 🗑
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| show | It contains multiple copies of its hormone
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| Interesting discovery relating to proopiomelanocortin | show 🗑
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| Can the inactive fragments of proteolyzed prohormones be clinically useful? | show 🗑
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| show | Peptide hormones are water soluble and therefore generally dissolve easily in the ECF for transport throughout the body
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| show | Relatively short: in the range of several minutes. Thus if the organism wants to sustain the effect of the hormone for a while it must be secreted continually
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| Are peptide hormones able to enter their target cell? | show 🗑
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| How do peptide hormones create a response in a cell? | show 🗑
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| show | The response is usually rapid because second messenger systems usually modify existing proteins. Changes include opening or closing membrane channels and modulating metabolic enzymes or transport proteins
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| Which second messenger systems have longer-lasting effects? | show 🗑
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| show | Endothelium is just simple squamos epithelium that lines organs and blood vessels INSIDE the body. Just remember that the thin lining of tissues INSIDE the body is usually endothelial
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| show | Unlike peptide hormones, which are made in tissues all over the body, steroid hormones are made only in a few organs: three types are made in the adrenal cortex, sex steroids are produced in the gonads; and placenta in pregnancy
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| Where is the adrenal cortex | show 🗑
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| Unique characteristics of cells that produce steroid hormones | show 🗑
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| show | Since steroids are lipophilic and diffuse easily across cell membranes, they can’t be trapped in secretory vesicles. Instead, the cells secrete steroid hormones as it is needed.
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| How are steroid hormones secreted by the cell? | show 🗑
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| How do steroid hormones reach their targets? | show 🗑
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| What proteins are used as carriers? | show 🗑
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| Describe the half-life of steroid hormones | show 🗑
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| Can steroid hormones diffuse into their target cells? | show 🗑
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| show | Inside the cytoplasm or nucleus of the target cells.
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| Where is the ultimate destination of steroid receptor-hormone complexes? Once they reach their destination, what do they do? | show 🗑
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| show | Genomic effect
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| Response time for the biological effects to occur for released steroid hormones that have genomic effects | show 🗑
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| Steroids with nongenomic responses | show 🗑
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| show | Cholesterol – it’s modified by enzymes to make various steroid hormones
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| Example of three steroid hormones and where they’re derived from | show 🗑
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| show | Small molecules created from either tryptophan or tyrosine, both notable for the ring structures in their R-groups. Only melatonin (made by pineal gland) is derived from tryptophan, all others are derived from tyrosine
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| show | Catecholamines have one tyrosine molecule; thyroid hormones have two AND iodine atoms
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| show | Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine – they’re neurohormones that bind to cell membrane receptors the way peptide hormones do.
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| show | Produced by the thyroid gland in the neck, behave more like steroid hormones, with intracellular receptors that activate genes
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| show | Stimulus, input signal, integration of the signal, output signal, and response
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| The output signal in endocrine and neuroendocrine reflexes. Example of output signal and related integrating center | show 🗑
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| show | Pathways in which an endocrine cell directly senses a stimulus and responds by secreting its hormone. In this type of pathway, the endocrine cell acts as both sensor (receptor) and integrating center
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| Examples of hormones that operates via the simple endocrine reflex | show 🗑
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| show | Clustered in four small glands that lie behind the thyroid gland. They monitor and control plasma (via their hormone, PTH) Ca^2+ concentration with the aid of G protein-coupled Ca^2+ receptors on their cell membrane.
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| Parathyroid endocrine cells: how do they do it? | show 🗑
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| How does the nervous system lead to the secretion of hormones? | show 🗑
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| show | Pituitary gland and pineal gland
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| show | Stretch receptor in the digestive tract causes afferent neuron to send signal to brain which then sends signal to pancreas via efferent neuron to secrete more insulin. Note: now pancreas has two different pathways to integrate
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| The human nervous system produces three major groups of neurohormones: | show 🗑
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| Note: another (non-major, I guess) endocrine gland located in the brain and its related neurohormone | show 🗑
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| show | A lima-bean sized structure extending downward from the brain, connected to it by a thin stalk and cradled in a protective pocket of bone
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| Anatomy of pituitary gland: infundibulum | show 🗑
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| show | The type of bone that’s surrounding and protecting the pituitary gland
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| Composition of pituitary gland | show 🗑
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| show | A true endocrine gland of epithelial origin, derived from embryonic tissue that formed the roof of the mouth. The anterior pituitary is AKA the adenohypophysis and its hormones are adenohypophyseal secretions
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| Posterior pituitary | show 🗑
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| show | Oxytocin and vasopressin – both of which are small peptide hormones
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| show | In the cell bodies of neurons in the hypothalamus, a region of the brain that controls many homeostatic functions. Each of the two hormones are made in a different cell type
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| show | Hypothalamic neurohormones are synthesized in the same manner as any other peptide hormone. But after synthesis, the secretory vesicles are transported down long neuronal extensions into the posterior pituitary
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| show | When a stimulus reaches the hypothalamus, and electrical signal passes from the neuron cell body to the distal (distant) end of the cell in the posterior pituitary, and the vesicle contents are released into the circulation
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| show | Nine amino acids
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| Vasopressin | show 🗑
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| Oxytocin | show 🗑
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| Another, more general, role of oxytocin in the body | show 🗑
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| show | prolactin (PRL), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), growth hormone (GH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH)
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| What controls secretion of all hormones of the anterior pituitary? | show 🗑
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| show | A hormone that controls the secretion of another hormone. Trophic hormones in the body: all hypothalamic hormones, all except one of the anterior pituitary hormones
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| Naming scheme of hypothalamic hormones | show 🗑
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| Which anterior pituitary hormone is not a trophic hormone? | show 🗑
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| How do the pathways containing the trophic anterior pituitary hormones work? Note: these are regarded as “complex” pathways | show 🗑
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| Once the anterior pituitary hormone reaches the endocrine gland in the body… | show 🗑
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| show | Instead of the response acting as the negative feedback signal, the hormones themselves are the feedback signal. Each hormone feeds back to suppress hormone secretion by integration centers earlier in the reflex pathway
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| show | When secretion of one hormone in a complex pathway increases or decreases, the secretion of other hormones also changes because of feedback loops that link the hormones in the same pathway
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| Short-loop negative feedback | show 🗑
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| show | A specialized region of the circulation consisting of two sets of capillaries directly connect by a set of larger blood vessels
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| show | One in the kidneys, one in the digestive system, and one in the brain
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| show | The portal system though which hypothalamic trophic hormones are transported directly to the pituitary.
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| show | A much smaller amount of hormone can be secreted to elicit a given level of response because the blood volume flowing through is so small. The same amount of hormone in a normal blood vessel would be too dilute
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| Why is it advantageous to have a smaller volume of blood flowing through the hypothalamic-hypophyseal pituitary portal system? | show 🗑
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| Overall processes the pituitary gland controls in the body | show 🗑
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| Prolactin (PRL) | show 🗑
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| Growth hormone (GH), AKA somatotropin | show 🗑
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| Gonadotropins | show 🗑
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| show | Controls hormone synthesis and secretion in the thyroid gland
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| Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) | show 🗑
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| show | Synergism, permissiveness, and antagonism
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| show | When two or more hormones interact at their targets so that the combination yields a result that is greater than additive. E.g. epi = 5mg glucose /100 ml blood; glucagon = 10mg/100ml; epi + glucagon = 22mg/100. Note: chart pg 234
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| Synergism is AKA… | show 🗑
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| Mechanism behind synergism | show 🗑
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| Permissiveness | show 🗑
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| Example of permissiveness | show 🗑
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| Mechanism behind permissiveness | show 🗑
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| Antagonism | show 🗑
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| Example of antagonism | show 🗑
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| show | Two hormones that have opposing physiological actions. E.g. glucagon and growth hormone both raise glucose levels whereas insulin decreases it, thus they’re antagonistic to each other
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| Do hormones that are antagonistic toward each other compete for the same receptors? | show 🗑
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| Three basic patterns of endocrine pathology: | show 🗑
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| show | If a hormone has been secreted too much and now exists in excessive amounts. As a result the effect of the hormone will be exaggerated
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| show | Numerous causes including benign tumors (adenomas) and cancerous tumors of the endocrine glands. Occasionally nonendocrine tumors secrete hormones
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| show | Coming from the outside of the body.
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| Endogenous | show 🗑
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| A condition that is iatrogenic means… | show 🗑
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| show | The cortisol will feedback negatively to the hypothalamus and stop the production of CRH. As a result cortisol production would shut down. If the adrenal cortex is starved of cortisol long enough, the glands will atrophy
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| Atrophy | show 🗑
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| Can atrophied glands regain function after the administration of exogenous sources of a hormone? | show 🗑
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| Hyposecretion | show 🗑
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| show | Insufficient diet in iodine will make the thyroid unable to manufacture the iodinated thyroid hormone
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| Most common cause of hyposecretion | show 🗑
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| How is negative feedback pathways affected in hyposecretion? | show 🗑
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| show | The adrenal cortex atrophies in tuberculosis and cortisol production decreases. The hypothalamus and anterior pituitary will then secrete more CRH and ACTH in an attempt to stimulate the adrenal gland into making more cortisol
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| Abnormal tissue responsiveness | show 🗑
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| Down regulation | show 🗑
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| Hyperinsulinemia | show 🗑
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| show | Abnormal tissue responsiveness can result when there are mutations in the receptors that cause them to be absent or nonfunctional
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| show | Androgen receptors are nonfunctional in the male fetus because of a genetic mutation. As a result the androgens produced by the developing fetus are unable to influence development of the genitalia.
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| show | Abnormal tissue responsiveness can also result when there are problems in the signal transduction pathway, e.g. defects in the G protein
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| show | Low parathyroid hormone results even though blood levels of the hormone are normal or elevated. This is due to a defect in the G protein that links the hormone receptor to the cAMP amplifier, adenylyl cyclase
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| show | UNDERSTAND FIGURE ON PAGE 237
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| show | If a pathology (deficiency or excess) arises in the last endocrine gland in a reflex, the problem is considered to be a primary pathology
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| show | If a tumor in the adrenal cortex begins to produce excessive amounts of cortisol, the resulting condition is called primary hypersecretion
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| show | If a dysfunction occurs in one of the tissues producing trophic hormones, the problem is secondary pathology.
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| show | The pituitary is damaged because of head trauma and ACTH secretion diminishes. The resulting cortisol deficiency is considered to be secondary hyposecretion of cortisol
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| Etiology of a disease | show 🗑
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| show | Hypothalamic: rare. Anterior pituitary: about 2/3 of all cortisol hypersecretion syndromes.
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| show | Endogenous hypersecretion of the hormone or exogenous administration of the hormone
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| What happens if there is an adrenal tumor that is secreting a hormone, e.g. cortisol, in an unregulated fashion | show 🗑
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| Evolutionary conservation of hormone function | show 🗑
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| show | Genetic engineering: the human gene for insulin is inserted into a bacterium which then synthesizes the hormone, providing us with a plentiful source of human insulin
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| show | Calcitonin which is found in fish and plays a major role in their metabolism, is also in humans and apparently has no role
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| show | …that in humans these structures are present as minimally functional glands.
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| show | E.g. melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) from the intermediate lobe of the pituitary controls pigmentation in reptiles and amphibians. Adult humans only have a vestigial intermediate lobe with no measurable MSH
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| show | The study of endocrinology in nonhuman organisms. E.g. melatonin was discovered via research in tadpoles.
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| show | The “darkness hormone” secreted at night as we sleep. It is the chemical messenger that transmits information about light-dark cycles to the brain center that governs the body’s biological clock
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| Grave’s disease | show 🗑
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| show | TRH and TSH are both low and thyroid hormones (thyroxine) are elevated because it’s a primary hypersecretion pathology
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| show | PRFs (prolactin releasing factors) AND dopamine (inhibits) -> prolactin (non-trophic) -> [[breast tissue]]
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| show | TRH (thyroid releasing hormone) -> TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) -> [thyroid gland] -> thyroid hormones -> [[many tissues]]
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| Hypothalamic-anterior pituitary pathway, target: adrenal cortex | show 🗑
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| show | Somatostatin (inhibits) AND GHRH (stimulates) -> GH (growth-hormone) -> [liver] -> IGFs (insulin-like growth factors) -> [[many tissues]]
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| show | GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) -> FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) OR LH (luteinizing hormone) -> [gonads] -> Androgens OR estrogens/progesterone -> [[germ cells of gonads]] and [[many tissues]]
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| show | PKC and PKA in addition to the calcium influx in order to exocytose the secretory vesicles filled with insulin
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| Translocation | show 🗑
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| show | RER: cotranslational translocation -> Golgi: prohormone processing -> cytosol: storage in immature secretory granules (hydrophilic so can be stored); exocytosis via mature granules (way after synthesis, stored long term)
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| Proinsulin -> insulin + c-peptide (note: proinsulin cannot function, only insulin can. This process is therefore required) | show 🗑
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| show | Prohormone convertases that live in the secretory pathway. They recognize pairs of bases of amino acids and cleave them, *especially Lys-Arg*
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| Prohormone for ACTH | show 🗑
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| show | Snipped to *6 copies* of TRH as well as some other peptides and a signal sequence
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| Parent of steroids | show 🗑
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| show | Adrenal cortex and testes/ovaries
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| Glucocorticoid is important for | show 🗑
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| Aldosterone does what? | show 🗑
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| show | Cholesterol is shuttled first to the mitochondria where it’s converted to an intermediate. The intermediate is sent to the ER where it’s modified. Then sent back to mitochondria. Then immediately synthesized, diffuses through membrane
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| A cell that makes steroids is called a… | show 🗑
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| Difference between steroidogenic and peptide-synthesizing cells | show 🗑
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| How are steroids transported through circulatory system? | show 🗑
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| How can steroid hormones affect its target? | show 🗑
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| show | Binds directly to receptor located ON DNA!
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| From where are catecholamines and thyroid hormones derived? | show 🗑
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| Compare half life of peptide hormones to steroids | show 🗑
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| show | Dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine
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| show | Thyroxine, triiodothyronine
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| show | Thyroid hormones have two ring structures
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| Conversion of tyrosine to dopamine | show 🗑
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| Conversion of dopamine to norepinephrine | show 🗑
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| Conversion of norepinephrine to epinephrine | show 🗑
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| show | A benzene with two hydroxyls next to each other is the basis for the molecule “catechol”. And of course there’s an amino on the opposite side of the molecule.
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| What do you call a cell that can produce catecholamines? | show 🗑
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| What do you call pathways that are dominated by catecholamines? | show 🗑
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| show | Peptinergic cells
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| What happens if a neuron continuously secretes norepinephrine? | show 🗑
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| show | Norepinephrine
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| Unique part about thyroid hormones | show 🗑
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| Summary of the synthesis of neurotransmitters (e.g. in adrenal medullary cell or any other catecholaminergic cell) | show 🗑
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| show | Catecholamines are like peptide hormones; thyroid hormones are like steroid hormones
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| show | Enkephalin – opiate peptide that mimics opium. Mood modulator and pain reducer. Narcotic analgesic. It’s secreted along with epinephrine every time you have a fight/flight response. They’re coordinately secreted from same vesicles
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| Difference between catecholamine and peptide hormone | show 🗑
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| For thyroid hormones, what is stored in the secretory vesicles? Add note | show 🗑
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| show | The population of all mRNAs
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| show | Anterior = no, it’s not made of neurons. The posterior = yes.
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| Somatotrophs | show 🗑
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| Effects of glucocorticoids from chronic stress | show 🗑
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| Effects of mineralcorticoids (e.g. cortisol) from chronic stress | show 🗑
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| Effects of catecholamines from short term stress response | show 🗑
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| show | Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
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| show | Peptide
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| show | 3: Glutamic acid – histidine – proline
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| Why is the small size of TRH significant | show 🗑
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| show | Their C-terminus is not a carboxylic acid, it’s an amide; the OH is replaced by NH2
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| show | PAM, it requires O2 and Cu as cofactors
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| show | Decrease inflammation and suppress immune system
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| show | Corticotrophs
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Review the information in the table. When you are ready to quiz yourself you can hide individual columns or the entire table. Then you can click on the empty cells to reveal the answer. Try to recall what will be displayed before clicking the empty cell.
To hide a column, click on the column name.
To hide the entire table, click on the "Hide All" button.
You may also shuffle the rows of the table by clicking on the "Shuffle" button.
Or sort by any of the columns using the down arrow next to any column heading.
If you know all the data on any row, you can temporarily remove it by tapping the trash can to the right of the row.
To hide a column, click on the column name.
To hide the entire table, click on the "Hide All" button.
You may also shuffle the rows of the table by clicking on the "Shuffle" button.
Or sort by any of the columns using the down arrow next to any column heading.
If you know all the data on any row, you can temporarily remove it by tapping the trash can to the right of the row.
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Created by:
Intellex_
Popular Physiology sets