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Integrative Physiology Ch. 6 - Communication, Integration, and Homeostasis

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Answer
show ~75 trillion  
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Two basic types of physiological signals   show
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Electrical signals   show
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show Molecules secreted by cells into the ECF  
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_____ signals are responsible for most communication within the body   show
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show Targets for short, are the cells that receive the electrical or chemical signals  
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Four basic methods of cell-to-cell communication:   show
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Four basic methods of cell-to-cell communication: gap junctions   show
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Four basic methods of cell-to-cell communication: contact-dependent signals   show
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show Communication by chemicals that diffuse through the ECF  
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Four basic methods of cell-to-cell communication: long-distance communication   show
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Connexins   show
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show The united connexins create a protein channel called a connexon that can open or close.  
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Syncytium   show
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What kind of molecules flow through connexons when they’re open?   show
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The only means by which electrical signals can pass directly from cell to cell   show
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Are all gap junctions the same?   show
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Where does contact-dependent signaling commonly occur?   show
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CAMs   show
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Local communication is accomplished by _____ and _____ signaling   show
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show A chemical that acts on cells in the immediate vicinity of the cell that secreted the signal.  
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show If a chemical acts on the cell that secreted it, it’s an autocrine signal (acts on itself)  
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show …diffusing through the interstitial fluid. Distance is a limiting factor for diffusion so the effective range of paracrine signals is restricted to adjacent cells  
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Example of paracrine signaling   show
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Which cells in the body can release paracrine signals?   show
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Most long-distance communication between cells is the responsibility of…   show
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The endocrine system communicates by using…   show
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Hormones   show
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How does the nervous system communicate?   show
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What are the electrical-turned-chemical signals released from neurons called?   show
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Neurotransmitter   show
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Neuromodulator   show
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Neurohormone   show
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The similarities between the neurohormones from the nervous system and classic hormones from the endocrine system cause…   show
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show A large and diverse family of regulators produced throughout the body. They are small cell-signaling proteins and can be proteins, peptides, or glycoproteins.  
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show Cell development, cell differentiation, and the immune response  
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show Cytokines act on a broader spectrum of target cells. Also they’re not produced by specialized cells the way hormones are (all nucleated cells can produce cytokines in response to stimuli), and they are made on demand  
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show They’re made in advance and stored in the endocrine cell until needed  
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Receptor proteins   show
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show A cell cannot respond to a chemical signal if the cell lacks the appropriate receptor proteins for that signal  
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Ligand   show
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The ligand is known as the _____ because…   show
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show The ligand-receptor binding activates the receptor  
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What does the receptor do after being activated?   show
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show The last signal molecule in the pathway initiates synthesis of target proteins or modifies existing target proteins to create a response  
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show Signal molecules –(binds to)-> Receptor protein –(activates)-> Intracellular signal molecules –(alters)-> Target proteins –(create)-> Response  
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Chemical signals fall into two broad categories based on their lipid solubility:   show
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show In the nucleus, cytosol, or cell membrane as integral proteins  
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Lipophilic signal molecules   show
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show Unable to diffuse through membrane, instead they remain in the EFC and bind to receptor proteins on the cell membrane. A very rapid response time, within milliseconds to minutes.  
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show Receptor-channels, receptor-enzymes, G protein-coupled receptors, integrin receptors  
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Signal transduction   show
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show The extracellular signal molecule (ligand) is the first messenger; the intracellular molecules form a *second messenger system*  
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Transducer   show
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Signal amplification   show
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Amplifier enzyme   show
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Signal transduction pathway pattern: (1)   show
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show The activated receptor turns on its associated proteins which may be protein kinases (which transfer phosphates from ATP to proteins) or amplifier enzymes (which create ICF second messengers)  
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show Second messengers alter the gating of channels (opening or closing them, affecting the cell’s membrane potential) then increase intracellular calcium which will bind to proteins and change their function, creating cellular response  
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Signal transduction pathway pattern: (4)   show
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Signal transduction pathway pattern: (5)   show
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Signaling cascade   show
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show Adenylyl cyclase, guanylyl cyclase, and phospholipase C  
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show Ca^2+, cAMP, cGMP, IP_3, DAG  
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show Have two regions: receptor region on the ECF side, and enzyme region on ICF side. Enzyme region may be on a different protein than the receptor. The enzyme will be either a protein kinase (e.g. tyrosine kinase) or guanylyl cyclase  
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show Converts GTP to cGMP. Found in membrane cytosol. Activated by receptor-enzyme nitric oxide (NO)  
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show …the hormone insulin as well as many growth factors and cytokines. Note: the insulin receptor protein has intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity. Most cytokines don’t have intrinsic enzyme activity and instead activate cytosolic enzymes  
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show A cytosolic enzyme called Janus family tyrosine kinase, abbreviated JAK kinase  
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show Large membrane-spanning proteins that cross the bilayer 7 times. The cytoplasmic tail is linked to the G protein  
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show A 3-part membrane transducer molecule. When inactive they’re bound to guanosine diphosphate (GDP). Exchanging GDP for GTP activates the G protein.  
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show (1) open an ion channel in the membrane, or (2) alter enzyme activity on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane  
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show Amplifier enzymes  
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show Adenylyl cyclase and phospholipase C  
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show The types of ligands that bind to the G protein-coupled receptors include hormones, growth factors, olfactory molecules, visual pigments, and neurotransmitters  
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show Converts ATP to cAMP. Found in membrane. Activated by G protein-coupled receptor.  
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show Converts membrane phospholipids to IP3 and DAG. Found in membrane. Activated by G protein-coupled receptor  
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The G protein-coupled adenylyl cyclase-cAMP system: (1)   show
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The G protein-coupled adenylyl cyclase-cAMP system: (2)   show
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The G protein-coupled adenylyl cyclase-cAMP system: (3)   show
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The G protein-coupled adenylyl cyclase-cAMP system: (4)   show
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show Protein kinase A phosphorylates other proteins, leading ultimately to a cellular response  
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The G protein-coupled phospholipase C system summary   show
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show A nonpolar diglyceride that remains in the membrane and interacts with protein kinase C (PK-C), a Ca^2+-activated enzyme on the cytoplasmic face of the cell membrane. PK-C phosphorylates cytosolic proteins for signal cascade  
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Inositol triphosphate (IP_3)   show
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The G protein-coupled phospholipase C system: (1)   show
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show G protein activates PL-C, an amplifier enzyme  
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The G protein-coupled phospholipase C system: (3)   show
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The G protein-coupled phospholipase C system: (4)   show
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The G protein-coupled phospholipase C system: (5)   show
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show Membrane-spanning integrins have receptors on the ECF side binding either to proteins of the matrix or to ligands such as antibodies or blood clotting molecules.  
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Integrin receptors: ICF   show
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show Blood clotting is defective in individuals who lack integrin receptors on their platelets  
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The simplest receptors are… (also, where are they found?)   show
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show When a ligand binds to the receptor-channel protein, a channel gate opens or closes, altering the cell’s permeability to an ion. The membrane potential is rapidly effected, creating an electrical signal  
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Acetylcholine-gated cation channel of the skeletal muscle   show
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How does calcium enter the cytosol   show
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Where are most calcium ions stored, and how does it get there?   show
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Effects of calcium ions entering the cytoplasm: (1)   show
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Effects of calcium ions entering the cytoplasm: (2)   show
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show They bind to regulatory proteins to trigger exocytosis of secretory vesicles.  
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Effects of calcium ions entering the cytoplasm: (4)   show
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show Entry into a fertilized egg initiates development of the embryo  
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show Soluble gases are short-acting paracrine/autocrine signal molecules that act close to where they’re produced  
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The best known gaseous signal molecules   show
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Half-life   show
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show In endothelial tissues NO is produced by nitric oxide synthase (NOS): arginine + O2 –(NOS)-> NO + citrulline. The NO diffuses into target cells where, through a cascade, ultimately relaxes blood vessels.  
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NO in the brain   show
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Carbon monoxide (CO) as a signal   show
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Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as a signal   show
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show Receptors with no known ligand  
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show Lipid-derived paracrine signals. They are all derived from arachidonic acid, a 20-carbon fatty acid. They ultimately act on their target’s G protein-coupled receptors  
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The synthesis process network that produces arachidonic acid is known as the…   show
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Arachidonic acid cascade   show
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show Leukotrienes and prostanoids. These lipid-soluble molecules can diffuse out of the cell and combine with G protein coupled-receptors on neighboring cells to exert their action  
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Leukotrienes   show
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show Produced when the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX) acts on arachidonic acid. Prostanoids include prostaglandins and thromboxanes which signal a huge assortment of actions, e.g. prostaglandins play a role in inflammation  
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show They inhibit COX enzymes and decrease prostaglandin synthesis. Prostaglandins play a role in inflammation and inflammation causes pain due to a release of chemicals that stimulate nerve endings  
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Another example (other than eicosanoids) of lipid signal molecules   show
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For most signal molecules, the target cell response is determined by…   show
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show …the same receptor’s binding site. This can result in competition  
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Example of specificity and competition with binding site receptors   show
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When a ligand binds with a receptor, one of two events follows:   show
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Agonists   show
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Antagonists   show
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Note: what does “endogenous” mean?   show
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Example of a pharmacologically synthesized agonist   show
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show When epinephrine binds to the alpha receptor, e.g. in the intestinal tract blood vessels, the blood vessels constrict. When epinephrine binds to the beta-2 receptor, e.g. in skeletal muscle blood vessels, blood vessels dilate  
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What happens when a signal molecule is present in the body in abnormally high concentrations for a sustained period of time?   show
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show A decrease in receptor number. The cell can physically remove receptors from the membrane through endocytosis  
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show A faster method of decreasing cell response than down-regulation. It is achieved by binding a chemical modulator to the receptor protein. E.g. phosphorylating beta receptors  
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Desensitization diminishes the target cell’s response regardless of…   show
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show A condition in which the response to a given dose decreases despite continuous exposure to the drug; it occurs due to down-regulation and desensitization  
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show The insertion of more receptors into the membrane. E.g. if a neuron is damaged and can’t release normal amounts of neurotransmitter, the target cell may up-regulate its receptors  
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How does a cell terminate a response from a Ca^2+ signal?   show
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show One way is by degrading the ligands with enzymes in the ECF. Another is by transporting the messengers into neighboring cells  
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show By endocytosis of the receptor-ligand complex. Once in the cytoplasm the ligands are removed and the receptors return to the membrane via exocytosis  
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Disease caused by toxin: Bordetella pertussis   show
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Homeostasis is a continuous process that uses a _____ to monitor key functions, which are often called _____   show
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In its simplest form, any control system has three basic parts:   show
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The input signal of the physiological control system   show
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show The integrating center (often neurons or endocrine cells) – it evaluates information coming from the sensor and initiates a response that is designed to bring the regulated variable back into the desired range  
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show The effector: muscles or other tissues controlled by the integrating center  
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Cannon’s postulates describing regulated variables and control systems   show
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show Fitness = compatible with normal function. Nervous system regulates blood volume, pressure, osmolarity, body temp., etc.  
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Cannon’s postulates describing regulated variables and control systems: (2)   show
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show There are agents in the body that are constantly moderated sending opposing signals to them, e.g. parasympathetic and sympathetic pathways  
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Cannon’s postulates describing regulated variables and control systems: (4)   show
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Local control   show
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show Respond to changes that are widespread throughout the body, i.e. *systemic*. This is a long-distance pathway  
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show The nervous and endocrine systems. Cytokines are also involved  
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A reflex pathway can be broken down into two parts:   show
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Three components of the reflex loop and their steps. I.e. Steps of a reflex   show
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Stimulus/sensor -> afferent pathway   show
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show Evaluates the incoming signal, compares it with the *setpoint* (desired value) and decides on an appropriate response.  
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show The output signal, or efferent pathway, is initiated by the integrating center. This is the electrical or chemical signal that’s sent to the effector (AKA target). The effector carries out the appropriate response to normalize the situation  
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Sensory receptors vs. receptor molecules   show
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show Receptors located in, or closely linked to, the brain  
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show Receptors residing elsewhere in the body  
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show All sensory receptors have a threshold, a minimum stimulus that must be achieved to set the reflex response in motion  
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Do endocrine reflexes that are not associated with the nervous system have sensory receptors?   show
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In endocrine reflexes, what’s the integrating center?   show
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show Central nervous system (brain/spinal cord)  
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Two levels of response for any reflex control pathway   show
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Factors that influence an individual’s setpoint for a given variable   show
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show The adaptation of physiological processes to a given set of environmental conditions if it occurs naturally  
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Acclimation   show
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Feedback loop   show
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show Negative (keeps system near setpoint); positive  
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show …the sensitivity of the system. If not very sensitive, the regulated variable will oscillate around the setpoint. Some sensors in physiological systems are more sensitive than others  
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show The response reinforces the stimulus rather than decreasing it (like negative feedback loops)  
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show Hormonal control of uterine contractions during childbirth. The baby drops and puts pressure on cervix. Oxytocin is released causing uterus to contract, putting more pressure on cervix causing oxytocin release  
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show Reflexes that enable the body to predict that a change is about to occur and start the response loop in anticipation of the change  
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show Salivation, initiated by the sight, smell, or even thought of food  
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show Daily biological rhythm. Humans have many circadian rhythms including blood pressure, body temperature, and metabolic processes. E.g. you feel cold at night due to the circadian rhythm-controlled thermoregulatory reflex  
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Are cortisol concentrations in the body constant?   show
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While neural and endocrine reflexes can be relatively simple, _____ can be very complex   show
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Specificity of reflex pathways: neural vs. endocrine   show
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show Neural reflexes are much faster than endocrine pathways, with electrical signals reaching speeds of up to 120 m/sec.  
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REVIEW AND MEMORIZE DIAGRAM ON PAGE 207   show
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Duration of action of reflex pathways   show
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Stimulus intensity of reflex pathways   show
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Knee-jerk response   show
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show REVIEW AND MEMORIZE TABLE ON PAGE 209  
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show Gap junctions, contact-dependent signals, local communication, long-distance communication  
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Type of junctions between contractile cardiac cells   show
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Contact-dependent signals   show
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show Autocrine and paracrine  
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How far away between paracrine signaling? What’s the limit (distance) for communication?   show
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Long distance communication is accomplished by…   show
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show The gland that secretes the hormone is filled with them, so secretion into the blood occurs down their concentration gradient.  
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Nervous communication does not require…   show
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show Molecules that are secreted by neurons across a small gap to the target cells neurotransmitters are made in relatively LOW quantities  
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show Large: it’s more of a brute force method of communication than neural communication  
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show Endocrine: secreted from gland rather than through duct. What is secreted is a hormone  
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show Lipophilic = hydrophobic; lipophobic = hydrophilic (i.e. hydrophilic hormones need to use surface receptors to enter cells)  
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cAMP is a…   show
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Explain how the G protein is exactly activated by the coupled receptor. How does that work?   show
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show GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP; the G protein then reassociates with the remainder of the dissociated G protein (beta and gamma)  
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Recap: parts of the G-protein   show
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G protein may work in a different pathway, not cAMP but…   show
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show …epinephrine  
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Major adrenergic receptors. What type of receptor are they?   show
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How do adrenergic receptors lead to vasoconstriction (thus increasing blood pressure)? Use an alpha-1-adrenergic receptor an example.   show
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An agonist to an adrenergic receptor would… (Example of an agonist?)   show
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show On smooth muscle cells  
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show Beta-1 adrenergic receptors  
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Catecholamine storm after heart attack   show
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show G protein-couple receptor kinase  
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Give detailed explanation of the process of down-regulation   show
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Sorting endosome – How does it determine whether or not to recycle the G protein-coupled receptor?   show
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Chronic beta-blocker therapy results in…   show
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show Carotid artery which senses the bp change and sends a signal to the brain which decides the proper response. The brain will either initiate a reflex response or there can be a local change and a local response.  
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How to shut off a positive feedback loop?   show
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show E.g. for ovulation, wherein you want a powerful surge of response  
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