Phonology, Phonemes, Minimal Pairs, Allophones, Phonetic Analysis, Syllables,
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| phoneme | a contrastive sound of a language
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| Contrast is proven through a | minimal pair
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| minimal pair | a pair of phonetically transcribed words which contain only one phonetic difference, and which have different meanings
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| Phonemes are represented with phonetic transcription surrounded by | slashes: /p b t d k ɡ/
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| Minimal Sets | show several contrasts at once, instead of showing one pair at a time.
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| Length is indicated by the | triangular colon: [ ː ] after a symbol.
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| Sometimes length is shown by | two of the same segment in a row.
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| Vowel-like qualities can be added to a single, unit consonant to make interesting phonemic contrasts. | Secondary Articulation
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| Allophones | A collection of one or more variant pronunciations of a phoneme in a particular phonetic context
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| The non-contrastive variants of a phoneme are called | Allophones
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| Complementary distribution is | predictable, nonoverlapping distribution
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| allophone rule | Input Process Output Context
/p/ → [pʰ] / # _______ # = word boundary
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| word boundary | # ____ = word-initially ____# = word-finally ____ = where sound occurs
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| The allophone rule should be named | after the process
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| conditioned allophone | the allophone that is restricted to a certain context
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| Many words alternate between the flap and /t/ or /d/, according to | stress
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| The flapping rule | /t, d/ → [ɾ] / ˈV__ V
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| Glottal stop is | inherently voiceless
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| glottal stop is most commonly found | before nasals and the lateral approximant
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| /t/ →[ʔ] / ___ {N, l} What does { } equal? | disjunction (either/or)
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| /t/ →[ʔ] / ___ {N, l} What does N equal? | Any nasal
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| One definition of a phoneme is that it is a | Family of phonetically related sounds in complementary distribution
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| Phonemes are | abstract (mental categories/sound systems)
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| Allophones are | concrete (phonetic, occur in rule-governed context)
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| Phonemic analysis is | the analytical procedure which determines the phonemic status of a sound.
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| phonemic analysis problems ask the analyst to | focus on two or more sounds or classes of sounds
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| Phonemic Analysis: Step 1 | Look for a minimal pair or set
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| Phonemic Analysis: Step 2 | If you do not find a minimal pair, assume the sounds are
allophones of the same phoneme. Organize the data so that all the sounds of one allophone are together and list the environments in each column.
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| # = | word boundary
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| ___ = | where the sound in question occurs
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| #___ = | word-initial
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| ___# = | word-final
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| Phonetic plausability | The rule is highly plausible.
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| syllable | A basic unit of the phonology of all languages. It consists of one or more segments which typically have a peak of acoustic energy
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| Nucleus, (or Peak) | the core part of every syllable. It represents the greatest amount of acoustic energy in the syllable.
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| N = | Nucleus
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| The Rime (or Rhyme) | the Nucleus plus any consonants that follow it
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| The syllable head σ (sigma) | The highest organizing node of the syllable as
a whole
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| σ = | Syllable head
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| R = | Rime
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| Onset | The constituent for any consonants that occur before the
Nucleus. It is a daughter node of σ and a sister node of R.
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| O = | Onset
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| The Coda | The constituent for any consonants that occur after the
Nucleus. It is a daughter node of R and a sister node of N.
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| C = | Coda
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| If there is more than one segment in a constituent, it is called a | complex or a branching constituent
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| complex onsets | syllable-initial consonant clusters
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| complex nuclei | diphthongs or triphthongs
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| complex codas | syllable-final consonant clusters
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| polysyllabic words | must be drawn with two or more syllable trees
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| onsets go from | Right to Left
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| coda go from | Left to Right
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| Morpheme | The smallest unit in language that has meaning, either lexical meaning (book, cat, mother) or grammatical meaning (PLURAL, POSSESSIVE, PROGRESSIVE)
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| A morpheme can be a | a root or an affix
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| Affixes include | prefixes and suffixes
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| Allomorphs | Alternations of a morpheme. They are the result of phonological rules of place assimilation.
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| The past tense has a | third allomorph, which is the result of a second phonological rule.
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| insertion of the vowel | epenthesis
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| The insertion of material is formalized as | going from ∅ (zero, the empty set) to the inserted sound.
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| Assimilation | sounds become more alike
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| Dissimilation | sounds become less alike
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| Deletion | a sound is taken away
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| Metathesis | the linear order of sounds is changed
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| Fortition | sounds become “stronger” (less sonorous)
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| Lenition | sounds become “weaker” (more sonorous)
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| Miscellaneous | some rules do not fall neatly into the above categories
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| Examples of Consonant-Vowel Interaction | Consonants can become palatalized before front vowels, consonants can become labialized before back vowels, vowels can become nasalized before nasal consonants
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| One common way of forming adjectives is | by adding –al
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| Consonants may be inserted, often to | ease in the transition between difficult consonant clusters.
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| Both consonants and vowels may be | deleted
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| Vowel Deletion rule | V → ∅ / ˈ(X)V___ σ
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| X = | X = 1 o r more Consonants
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| Metathesis is | a switch in the linear order of segments
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| Fortition is | th e strengthening of a sound. It becomes less sonorous, and closer in degree of openness in the mouth
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| Examples of fortition | A (high) vowel becoming a glide, a glide becoming a liquid, a liquid becoming a fricative, a fricative becoming a stop, a voiced stop becoming a voiceless stop, a single stop becoming a geminate stop.
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| Lenitions are | When sounds become more sonorous (or open)
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| Examples of lenitions | a voiceless stop becomes voiced, a stop becomes a fricative, a fricative becomes an approximant, an approximant becomes a vowel
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| Distinctive features help | define natural classes, formalize phonological rules, express common changes in just a few features
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| distinctive feature | the smallest unit of language
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| Features combine with various values to form | the phonemes of a language
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| Miscellaneous | Not all rules are easily classifiable
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| Rules of deletion, insertion, or metathesis will always be | Phonological in nature
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| Allophonic rules | apply across the board, exceptionlessly
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| Phonological rules may be | phonologically conditioned, or morphologically conditioned
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| Underlying Representation (UR) | the mental representation of a linguistic form in a speaker’s grammar (INPUT)
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| Phonetic Representation (PR) | The rules in the phonological component then apply (OUTPUT)
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| Derivation | Derives a surface form from a more abstract underlying form
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