bio test 7
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| describe the likely response of Andean hummingbirds to climate change | they will move higher up the mountain
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| predict the birds probability of surviving climate change | high Hb and high location= bad (no where to go)
low Hb and low to moderate location= bad
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| why is Dr.Schul studying katydids even though he does not care about them | they have a good system to study questions like what genetic changed cause diversity and how do hearing systems detect new and important sounds
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| why are we still talking about geese | they are a framework for many biological concepts (everything we have learned)
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| viruses do not contain | cellular machinery
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| simple viruses | genetic material inside a protein coat (capsid)
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| viruses cant reproduce without | help from a host cell
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| viruses are categorized based on | capsid size and shape, genetic material, envelope
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| virus shapes | helical, spherical, head tail
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| virus genetic materials | mRNA vs DNA, positive sense: can be read directly or negative sense: must be translated
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| virus envelopes | present or absent
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| steps of virus replication | 1. attach to surface of cell via receptor (must be a perfect fit)
2. enter cell or inject viral genome
3. viral genes direct cell to make viral proteins
4. viral proteins assembled into new virions
5. new virions leave cell
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| features of corona virus | 1.spherical
2.contain positive sense RNA
3. enveloppe present
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| two pathways by which sarscov2 enters cells | endocytotic pathway and receptor mediated fusion
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| endocytotic pathway | virus taken into endosome and is membrane bound
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| receptor mediated fusion | bind to receptor on cell surface and empty genes
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| how does the spike protein initiate infection | it binds to ACE2 receptors on our cells
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| how do ACE and ACE2 maintain homeostasis | ACE: makes ANGII, increases and inflammation
ACE2: breaks down ANGII, decreases bp and tissue damage
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| how is the ACE and ACE2 homeostasis disrupted with sarscov2 | ACE2 receptor's lost so to much ANGII more inflammation and cell damage
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| covid genome | 29 genes, makes extra copies of viral RNA, assembles new virus particles, block ribosomes from translating host mRNA
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| open reading frame | stretch of RNA translated all at once
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| what is the difference between a structural and non structural protein | structural makes capsids, nonstructural makes viruses
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| how does the virus evade the host immune system | methylated cap to disguise as normal mRNA
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| how genetic variations affect the immune system | changes its ability with memory cells to fight off infections
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| two general parts of vertebrates immune system | innate and acquired
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| innate immune system | all animals, detects and fights pathogens, recruits immune cells to site of infection, activates the acquired IS
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| acquired immune system | only vertebrates, induce secondary response, results in mild or no symptoms
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| how does acquired immune system lead to immunity | memory cells know how to fight viruses who have already infected the cell
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| types of vaccines commonly used | heterotypic, inactivated, attenuates, toxoid, subunit
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| steps of clinical testing for vaccine | 1. preclinical: testing in animals
2. phase 1: asses safety in small healthy sample of people
3. phase 2: measure effects on more diverse group
4. phase 3: asses immunity in more natural setting
5. phase 4: monitor adverse effects/ immunity
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| BioNTech/Pfizer | mRNA that codes for covid gene enclosed in lipid nanoparticle
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| moderna | like pfizer but can be stroed in normal fridge/freezer
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| Johnson and Johnson | modified adenovirus containing DNA for spike protein (more stable than MRNA=stored longer)
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| Describe the changes that typically need to occur in a virus to enable host-jumping | access new host cell, utilize cells machinery, avoid cells immune responses , transmit easily
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| Explain why the ability of a respiratory virus to spread among people is influenced by the locations of susceptible cells in the respiratory system | upper respiratory= less deadly, spreads easier
lower respiratory= more deadly harder to spread
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| Explain why viruses that move from bats to other animals often cause severe illness. | they have unusually effective immune system which selects for virus strains with high replication rates
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| What makes bat immune system so effective | strong antiviral response but minimal inflammation
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| Why did bats evolve such a good immune system | Flight requires very high metabolic rate
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| why scientists hypothesize that SARS-CoV-2 had an intermediate host, rather than moving directly from bats to humans | the S protein on the bats strain does not fit the human ACE2 receptor
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| why was the covid vaccine able to be developed so quickly | overlapping of clinical testing phase to create a compressed time table
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