midterm 2
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| Short duration – high intensity: springing 8-10 seconds | ^ 25% ATP & 40% CP stores
^ duration - top speed stays same
Enzymes: ^ ATPase 30%, MK 20%, CPK 36%
^ top speed increase
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| Short duration – high intensity: springing 20-60 seconds | ^ glycogen
^ duration - top seed remains same
Enzymes: Glycolytic = ^ PFK 83%
^ top speed increase
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| Endurance training – adaptations | • ^ myoglobin 26%
• ^ number 120% & size 40% of mitochondria
• Enzymes: ^ TCA & ETC 40%
• ^ glycogen storage 2.5x
• ^ fatty acid utilization
• Greatest ^ Type IIa & Type IIx
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| High resistance strength training – adaptations | • ^ strength 28%
• ^ CP concentration 5.1%
• ^ Creatine concentration 35.2%
• ^ ATP Concentration 17.8%
• ^ Muscle Glycogen 32%
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| Why does ATP use increase with exercise? | • As activity levels increase, breathing rateincreases to supply more oxygen for increased ATP production
• As the work of the muscle increases, more and more ATP get consumed and must be replaced in order for the muscle to keep moving.
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| What does it mean for aerobic metabolism to meet ATP demand? | • oxygen uptake correlates with increasing speed
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| what is aerobic metabolism? | • the oxidative process of the generation of ATP or energy that occurs in the body to provide the body with fuel during both resting and exercise states.
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| Incremental phase (O2 Deficit) | •Energy is mostly supplied by the hydrolysis of ATP, CP, and anaerobic glycogenolysis (lactate)
• Utilization of storage oxygen
o O2 in Capillary blood & interstitual fluid
o O2 present in sarcoplasm with myoglobin
o O2 present in mitochondria
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| what is O2 deficit | Difference between oxygen demand and supply during exercise bout
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| Steady state phase (Plateau Phase) | • Energy demand of the exercise is completely met by the aerobic phosphorylation. (O2 demand – O2 Supply)
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| EPOC (recovery phase) | • Excessive Post-Exercise Oxygen Consumption instead of “oxygen debt”
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| Factors responsible for “oxygen debt | o resynthesize ATP & CP form ADP & Pi
o replenish the O2 stores of the body
o resynthesis of glycogen from lactic acid in liver (gluconeogenesis)
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| why EPOC is than bigger O2 deficit | • Extra oxygen consumed by Heart, respiratory muscles, hormonal, Q10 effect
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| Difference in VO2 kinetics during a maximal (heavy) and light exercise | • Higher (heavier) the intensity of the exercise the higher the oxygen deficit and EPOC – vice versa
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| Difference in training vs untrained who has bigger oxygen deficit and or EPOC and WHY... | •Trained person will develop smaller O2 deficit and EPOC, due to faster response of aerobic energy transformation system
^ rate-limiting enzymes: Isocitrate, Cytochrome oxidase
^ TCA intermediary synthesis
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| Single stage | single, supra-maximal workload. Warm up before testing.
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| Multiple stage | Progressively incremental exercise testing (GXT). The warm up is built into the workout.
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| how do you test VO2 max? | Single vs multiple stage
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| Modes | • Cycle ergometer
• Arm crank ergometer
• Treadmill
• Stair climb ergometer
• Swimming flume
• Rowing ergometer
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| What is VO2max | • maximum rate of oxygen consumption measured during incremental exercise; that is, exercise of increasing intensity.
• "V" for volume, "O₂" for oxygen, and "max" for maximum
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| Relative Vo2 max | better predictor aerobic fitness, health-related fitness, and endurance performance in weight–bearing sports and activities.
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| Absolute Vo2 max | better predictor of performance in non-weight-bearing endurance sports and activities
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| Difference between relative and absolute VO2 max? | Relative takes size into account and is measured in ml/kg/min and Absolute doesn't and is measured in L/min
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| How do we use this for an index of exercise intensity? | • Objective expression of exercise intensity
• Exercise intensity expressed relative to Vo2 max
• Exercising Vo2= Vo2 max x intensity % / 100%
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| Who has higher Vo2max in different athletes or sex? | athletic males
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| Muscle fiber types and Vo2max (%ST and max) | • Slow Twitch (ST) muscle fibers are highly aerobic fibers
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| What is anaerobic threshold (OBLA | • Power output or Vo2, during progressively incremental exercise, after which there is a systematic increase in blood lactate concentration.
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| Why does Dr. K like using OBLA | Descriptive term without a why or how, just what happens
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| Why does he NOT like anaerobic threshold | • Claims that it’s because anaerobic system as underlying mechanism
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| OBLA vs Ventilatory threshold | •OBLA – increased exercise leads to increase blood lactate
•Ventilatory- refers to the point during exercise at which the intensity level increases, breathing becomes faster; more steadily first and then more rapid as the intensity increases
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| When does OBLA happen |
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| three ways lactate production increases | -Hormonal stimulating of glycolysis b/c during fight or flight you release a lot of stress hormones that ^ ET
-Blood being shunt away from liver and kidney. B/c function of gluconeogenic organs need that blood to bring lactate to them.
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| How does the removal of lactate become difficult |
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| Where does vasodilation and constriction occur? |
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| What is lactate turnover rate | • Percentage of lactate leaving
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| What happens with endurance trained individuals vs untrained |
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| Why is OBLA a better predictor for performance |
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| How does training effect OBLA |
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| Difference in healthy person compared to McArdle’s | • McArdle's Metabolic myopathy caused by a deficiency in muscle glycogen phosphorylase
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| Direct Calorimetry | The rate of energy expenditure may be measured by measuring the rate of heat liberated by the body during rest or during various physical activities
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| Indirect Calorimetry | measurement of the amount of heat produced by a subject by determination of the amount of oxygen consumed and the amount of carbon dioxide eliminated.
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| What is the Atwater Rossa | • Insulated heat chamber
o No heat in or out
• Mesh tubing
• Person push out CO2
• Take out the CO2 of the chamber & push in O2 to make O2 constant
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| What is the respiratory exchange ratio | CO2 expired : O2 consumed
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| What do we use R for | • calculate relative contributions (%) of fats and carbohydrates to energy transfor mation and the amounts (grams) of fat and carbohydrates utilized. • Unknown R - 4.82 or 5 Kcal∙LO2-1
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| following ratio 1.0 | • C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O
R = 6CO2 / 6O2
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| following ratio 0.696 | • C16H32O2 + 23O2 = 16CO2 + 16H2O
R = 16CO2 / 23O2
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| following ratio 0.818 | • C72H112N2O22S + 77O2 = 63CO2 + 38H2O + SO3 + 9CO(NH2)2
R = 63CO2 / 77O2
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| how to calculate R | • R = Vco2 / Vo2
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| what is energy equivalent of Oxygen? |
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| when do you use energy equivalent of Oxygen? |
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| Basal metabolic rates (BMR) | the rate of energy expenditure during absolute rest
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| Basal metabolic rates (BMR) test protocol | •Absolute rest
•12 hours pos-absorptive state
•12 hours post-exercise
•Overnight restful sleep
•Dimly lit room
•Room temperature 68 to 80º F
•In semi-recumbent position at least 30 to 60 minutes before the measurements of the energy expenditure
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| Resting metabolic rate (RMR) test protocol | • 2 hours post-pranidal
• Sitting position
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| Factors Affecting BMR | • Weight
• Body Surface Area
• Age & Gender
• Fitness level
• Body composition
• Genetics
• Metabolic disease (hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism)
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| What is a Metabolic Equivalent? | • 1 MET is the rate of resting energy expenditure or the rate of resting O2 consumption
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| When do we use a MET? | • Used to express the rate of energy expenditure or exercise intensity of various physical activities as multiples of BMR
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| calculate energy expenditure from METS | • Vo2 = weight kg × 1 MET (3.5 ml·kg-1·min-1) × Given MET
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| E.E. of O2 | = 5.0 Kcal·L-1
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| Estimated rate of E.E | = Vo2 answer × 5 Kcal·LO2-1
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| Actual Rate of E.E. | = Given Resting VO2 × Given MET × 1 E.E. (5 Kcal·LO2-1)
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| Know how to calculate mechanical Efficiency | • M.E.(gross) = Work output Energy input 100 %
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| Energy input | = given Vo2 × E.E. O2 (4.82 kcal·L-1
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| Energy output | = Power Output x 60 sec·min-1 ÷ 1Kcal (4186.85 J·Kcal-1)
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| Net O2 consumption | = given Vo2 – MBR in L
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| Net energy input | = Net o2 consumption × E.E. O2 (4.82 kcal·L-1 )
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| M.E. (Net) | = Energy output÷ Net energy input x 100 %
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| Three Main functions of nervous system | • Sensory
• Integratory
• Motor
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| Central Nervous System (CNS) | Brain and Spinal cord
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| Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) | Afferent and Efferent neurons
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| SOMA (CELL BODY) | proteins produced to build new dendrites
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| Dendrites | transmit impulses towards the cell body
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| Axon | transmit impulses away from cell body
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| Nucleus | contains genetic material
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| Cytoplasm | synthesis of proteins
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| Myelin | protective covering that surrounds fibers called axons, the long thin projections that extend from the main body of a nerve cell or neuron
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| characteristics of neurons | Neuron is electrically charged, polarized
Excitability – ability to respond stimuli - altering its polarization.
Conductivity–ability to transmit electrical impulses.
B/c of these characteristics’ neurons can generate and conduct electrical impulses
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| Electrical & chemical gradients are responsible for what |
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| influx of Na+ means what? | Inside cell turns positive
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| Outflux of K+ means what? | Exits the cell to try and keep electrochemical equilibrium
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| What are voltage regulated Na+ and K+ responsible for? |
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| Na+/K+ pumps do what? | . The process of moving sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrance is an active transport process involving the hydrolysis of ATP to provide the necessary energy
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| Relative refractory | cell may be stimulated if stronger than normal stimulation will trigger a reaction
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| Absolute refractory | - Time elapsed from beginning of stimulation during which another action potential cannot be generated in the cell regardless if stimulus strength.
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| What is the all or non-principle | The size of A.P is independent of the stimulus intensity (strength).
No matter the size of the stimulation the AP is ALWAYS be the same. Under stimulation, nothing happens.
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| When does AP actually occur? | When it passes the simulation threshold
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| Eddie currents are responsible for what? | heating tissue heating or peripheral nerve stimulation.
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| What does diameter and length do to the propagation velocity | • The larger is the diameter of an axon the greater is the propagation velocity
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| Why is myelination important? | • helps prevent the electric current from leaving the axon
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| What does Saltatory conduction do? | Propagation of A.P. trough myelinated axons
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| What does it mean to be frequency coded? | • the stronger is the stimulus intensity the higher is the frequency of action potentials propagated.
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| What is a synapse? | • functional connections between neurons, between neurons and other cells – muscles and glands, or between muscle cells
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| the components of a synapse | i. Presynaptic terminal
ii. Motor end plate
iii. Synaptic cleft
iv. Basal Lamina
v. Quanta
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| What is the motor end plate | specialized chemical synapses formed at the sites where the terminal branches of the axon of a motor neuron contact a target muscle cell.
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| What do vesicles hold | liquid
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| Quanta | number of neurotransmitter vesicles released per Action Potential.
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| What is the basal lamina | is a layer of extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells, on which the epithelium sits
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| Starting from AP reaching axon button, release of what neurotransmitter? How do we release this neurotransmitter? | voltages which cause depolarization of skeletal muscle fibers caused by neurotransmitters binding to the postsynaptic membrane in the neuromuscular junction
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| What is the neurotransmitter responsible for activation of the muscle and what does it exactly do | Acetylcholine is excitatory at the neuromuscular junction in skeletal muscle, causing the muscle to contract.
When a nerve signal, reaches the end of the axon, the vesicles release a neurotransmitter into the synaptic gap.
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| How do we stop activation? | • Acetylcholinesterase
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| Why is this Acetylcholinesterase important? | • stops the signal between a nerve cell and a muscle cell.
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| What will occur if higher frequency of activation occurs? | • The larger is the frequency of APs arriving to the presynaptic terminal, the higher is the frequency of neurotransmitter vesicle released in the synaptic cleft, the larger is the EPP
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| Nerve gas | inactivates Acetylcholinesterase - Spastic Paralysis – post-synaptic blockade
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| Curare | competitively binds to Ach receptors of Post synaptic membrane - Flaccid Paralysis – post-synaptic neuromuscular blockade
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| How are we graded at the end plate | the larger is the amount of the transmitter released the larger is the size of the EPP)
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| How do we stop stimulation of end plate? | Botulinum Toxin???
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| Characteristics of EPP | • No overshoot and may go only up to 0 mv
• EPPs are Graded
• Conducted decrementally along the end plate
• very long duration
• no refractory periods
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| What are the four principals’ characteristics of muscle | • Excitability, Contractility, Extensibility, Elasticity
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| Excitability | ability to respond to stimuli
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| Contractility | ability to contract and produce a force
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| Extensibility | ability to be stretched without rupture
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| Elasticity | ability to return to its original shape after shortening or extension
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| What does the connective tissue do for the structure and force | • Structural support
• Force transmission
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| What are the three connective tissue | • Epimysium
• Perimysium
• Endomysium
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| Epimysium | envelops individual muscles from outside providing structural integrity for the whole muscle
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| Perimysium | envelops several hundred muscle fibers forming Fascicles
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| Endomysium | envelopes each muscle fiber individually
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| What is the tendon and what does it do? | • fusion of all three connective tissues together at the two distal end of the muscle forms tendons
• capable of resisting high tensile forces while transmitting forces from muscle to bone
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| What is a muscle fiber? | • Structural unit of the muscle
• Multinucleated
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| Structure component of a muscle fiber? | i. Sarcosol
ii. Saroclemma
iii. Sarcoplasm
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| Sarcosol | aqueous solution containing electrolytes, glucose, aminoacids, peptides, proteins, enzymes, fat droplets, glycogen granules, ATP, & CP.
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| Saroclemma | Phospholipid bilayer with imbedded proteins
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| Sarcoplasm | Cytosol + organelles (nuclei, mitochondria, filaments, endoplasmic reticulum, etc.).
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| What are Myofibrils made of? | • Thick (myosin) and thin (actin) myofilaments
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| How do these changes when contractions occur | • I-bands progressively narrow and eventually disappear.
• A-bands remain at the same length
• H-zone progressively narrows, disappears, and then reappears as a darker zone becoming progressively wider
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| What is a sarcomere and why is it important? | • a segment of a muscle fiber or myofibril located between two adjacent Z-disks.
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| What happened when sarcomeres are arranged in series vs parallel? | • in-series (increased range and velocity of contraction) and in-parallel (increased force of contraction)
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| Why do sarcomeres have striations? | • Under light microscope muscle fibers demonstrate alternating light (Isotropic) and dark (Anisotropic) regions called I-band and A-band
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| The sarcomeres has two myofilaments | Thick and Thin filaments
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| What is the key function of T-tubules | muscle contraction
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| Where are they in skeletal muscle vs cardiac | sarcolemma
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| What is the Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) | - is a membrane-bound structure found within muscle cells that is similar to the endoplasmic reticulum in other cells.
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| What are the dilated parts of Sarcoplasmic reticulum called? | Triads
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| What is the SR mechanically coupled with? | t-tubules
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| What is the mechanism for muscular contraction? | • Sliding Filament Theory of Muscular Contraction
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| How does the sliding filament theory occur | • the actin and myosin filaments within the sarcomeres of muscle fibers bind to create cross-bridges and slide past one another, creating a contraction.
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