HES 403- Exam 3
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| Two ways we determine fiber type | in the lab, what develops?
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| Troponin-c isoforms | higher sensitivity in power athletes
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| Western blot of fiber type was looking at what? | myosin heavy chain
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| Counting fiber type was looking at what? | myosin ATPase
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| Soleus muscle | posture muscle; slow-twitch
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| White vastis lateralis | found only in rodents; very few mitochondria
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| Diaphragm | mix of slow and fast twitch & mosaic fibers
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| Red/white fibers | both FT; red= IIa, white= IIb (rodents only)
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| Slow twitch fiber characteristics | high oxidative capacity, low glycolytic capacity, 110 ms speed, 10-180 fibers per motor neuron, low SR development
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| FT a characteristics | moderate oxidative capacity & moderate fatigue resistance, 50 ms speed, high anaerobic capacity, 300-800 fibers per neuron
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| FT b characteristics | high anaerobic capacity, 50 ms speed, higher peak force, 300-800 per neuron, high SR volume
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| Primary difference in force between FT and ST | number of fibers per neuron, but each fiber does have higher peak power
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| Myosin ATPase Vmax | 3x higher IIa than I; 5x higher IIb than I
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| What determines fiber type? | genetics determine which neuron; become specialized based on that neuron; endurance training can result in small changes; aging FT==>ST
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| Alpha motor neurons | innervate skeletal muscle
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| Gamma motor neurons | aka muscle spindles
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| Muscle spindles; what do they sense? | sense both length and rate of change in length
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| Golgi tension organs | defense against injury; sense tension
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| Ca2+ sensitivity of myofibrilar proteins/fatigue (3) | (troponin C); reduction from Pi, lower pH, or ROS
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| Max Ca2+ activated force/fatigue | reduced by Pi
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| SR Ca2+ released by RyR/fatigue | CaPi precipitation, Mg2+, low ATP, Pi
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| SR Ca2+ reuptake/fatigue | Pi, ADP, low ATP, ROS
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| Size of fast twitch and slow twitch muscles | fast twitch usually larger
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| Glycogen synthase untrained ST/FT & endurance trained? | more in FT than ST; will increase in FT and IIa
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| Plasticity of muscle inside & outside mitochondria | outside= small changes; inside=large
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| Phenotype adaptations in muscle | fiber size, enzymes/ Vmax, gene expression, organelle morphology
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| Interval training adaptations | look like endurance; not sure why
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| Calcium sensitive transcription factors | slow twitch sensitive to low concentration; fast twitch sensitive to high concentration
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| Muscle IGF | paracrine/autocrine; spliced differently
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| Muscle satellite cells | (stem cells); work in muscle repair, can be recruited with exercise, become deaf to signals as we age (may also decrease with age)
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| Myostatin | autocrine/paracrine growth signal
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| Myostatin mutation | huge steer (involved in gigantism)
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| Regulation of skeletal muscle plasticity (5) | nutrition, exercise, endo/exogenous signals, aging, drugs/hormones
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| Progressive overload | progressive increase in training load as body adapts (volume/intensity)
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| Adaptations to resistance training (3) | hypertrophy, increased power, increased 1 rep max (increased performance)
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| VO2 doesn’t decline in de-training, but… | it’s not a good indicator of performance in homogeneous populations (pH threshold is better)
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| Endurance training adaptations (6) | cardiovascular, pulmonary, skeletal muscle, bone/connective tissue, endocrine, renal
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| 5 causes of overtraining syndrome | neuromuscular, sympathetic system, metabolic, psychological, adrenal
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| neuromuscular overload | choline depletion?
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| Sympathetic overload | maladaptive fight or flight
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| Metabolic overload | glycogen or AA depletion
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| Psychological overload | altered hypothalamic pituitary function
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| Adrenal overload | decreased cortisol response
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| Symptoms of overtraining | performance, weight loss, allergies/colds, emotional, HR/BP, muscle tenderness
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| Causes of overtraining | excessive training, emotional, *abnormal autonomic NS, *disturbances in endocrine, *depressed immune (*=probably b/c of overtraining)
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| URTI | highest in sedentary and very high exercise volume/intensity
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| Highest fidelity sign of overtraining? | increased resting heart rate
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| How to predict overtraining? | constant miles per hour, measure heart rate compared to trained
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| How to treat over-training? | decrease intensity for several days, rest 3-5 days, counseling, alternate easy with hard, carbs
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| Excessive training | an unnecessarily high volume or intensity
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| 4 effects of properly tapering | increased muscular strength, reserved energy stores, no loss of VO2 max, performance increases
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| which sport has seen the most tapering research? | swimmers
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| detraining | cessation of regular training due to inactivity or immobilization; loss of muscle strength/size/power, decrease in muscular & cv endurance, loss of speed/agility/flexibility
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| loss of muscle strength during detraining | disrupted fiber recruitment (also happens in sarcopenia), atrophy
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| how to retain training gains if detraining? | training once every 10-14 days (only works ~2x)
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| loss of muscular endurance (5) | ox enzyme, glycolytic unchanged for 84 days, glycogen, acid-base, capillaries
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| loss of cardiorespiratory endurance (4) | greatest in highly trained; plasma volume, stroke volume, endurance performance, VO2 max
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| detraining effects (endurance athletes) can be minimized by | training 3x per week at 70% VO2 max
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| what is considered high altitude? | 1500 m (4921 ft)
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| environmental changes at high altitude | decreased pO2, temp, humidity, increased solar radiation
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| respiratory water loss | exacerbated in dry climates (high altitude); need more body water to moisten air
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| what cognitive things decline with high altitude? (6) | light sensitivity, visual acuity, postural stability, cognition, recall, reaction time
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| 3 metabolic responses to altitude | increased anaerobic metabolism, increased lactate production, decreased lactate at VO2 max
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| respiratory responses to altitude (3) | VE increases, pulmonary diffusion unchanged (if no edema), O2 transport and uptake impaired
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| altitude for sea-level performance | RBCs maintained when return to sea level; not proven; difficult to study since volume reduced at high altitude (live high train low)
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| training for optimal altitude performance | 1500-3000m above sea level 2 weeks before, do not compete within 24 hours, increase VO2 max at sea level to compete at a lower relative intensity
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| symptoms of acute mountain sickness (4) | nausea, vomiting, dyspnea, insomnia
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| when does AMS occur? | within 6-96 hours of arrival at altitude
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| what might be the cause of AMS? | CO2 accumulation (does not match up w/ hyperventilation)
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| how to prevent AMS? | ascend slowly (<300 m per day above 3000m)
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| symptoms of high altitude pulmonary edema (4) | dyspnea, excessive fatigue, cyanosis (blue nails/lips), mental confusion
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| HAPE occurs when? | rapid ascent above 2700m
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| Treat HAPE (3) | administer O2 and move to lower altitude, dexamethasome (synthetic cortisol)
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| High altitude cerebral edema | accumulation in the cranial cavity (>14000 feet); can easily lead to coma/death
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| Nitrogen narcosis | similar to alcohol intoxication; “the rapture of the deep”
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| Heat producing hormones | thyroxine, epinephrine, norepinephrine
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| Most important method of heat loss | evaporation
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| Kcal/mL heat loss? | 0.5 kcal/mL EVAPORATED sweat
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| Internal body temperature (3) | can exceed 40C during exercise; may be 42 in active muscles; small Q10 effect= faster enzymes
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| How is body temp measured? |
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| 2 sensors of heat exchange & 4 regulators | hypothalamus, central/peripheral thermoreceptors; sweat glands, smooth muscle around arterioles, skeletal muscle, endocrine
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| Cardic output in the heat | some will have to go to the skin
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| Rate of heat exchange rest vs. exercise | 1 kcal/min, 15kcal/min
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| Cardiovascular responses to exercise in heat | muscles/skin compete for blood, stroke volume decreases, HR increases because of this (cardiac drift)
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| Metabolic responses to exercise in heat (4) | body temp increases, O2 uptake increases (inefficiency), glycogen depletion hastened, lactate increases (inefficiency)
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| Heat acclimatization (4) | sweating becomes more efficient (where not blocked), blood flow to skin decreases, blood volume increases, glycogen use decreases
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| How to acclimatize to heat? | 1 hour or more for 5-10 days; CV adaptations 3-5 days, sweat mechanics up to 10
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| How does the body conserve/produce heat? (3) | shivering, nonshivering thermogenesis (BAT), peripheral vasoconstriction
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| 4 factors that affect body heat loss | body side/comp (subcutaneous doesn’t matter much), air temperature, wind chill, water immersion
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| 2 responses to exercise in the cold | muscle fatigue occurs more quickly, FFA release impaired (use glycogen faster)
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| micro/zero gravity | <1g; effects similar to detraining
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| what is a countermeasure to microgravity? | exercise (but must not require power & be light)
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| ground based models of microgravity | supine, walk on treadmill with feet
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| which fiber type declines quicker with microgravity/bedrest? | fast twitch
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| vastis lateralis/soleus muscles | quad/postural calf
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| 28 days on skylab is like | 30 days of bedrest
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