Physiology
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| What are the functions of erythrocytes? | transport oxygen n carbon dioxide
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| What is erythropoietin? | hormone released n produced from the kidney in response to low oxygen; stimulates the synthesis of erythrocytes(kidney Release hormone to increase red blood cell production)
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| Define four types of cells/tissues and their characteristics: | neurons, muscle cells, epithelial cells, connective tissue cells
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| neurons | are specialized to transmit information in the form of electrical signals; typically posses a number of branches that function either or receive signals from or transmit signals to other cells
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| Muscle fibers= muscle cells | are generally elongated in shape and are specialized to contract, thereby generating mechanical force and movement; voluntary: skeletal muscle and involuntary: cardiac and smooth muscles
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| epithelia | consist of a continuous, sheet like layer of cells in combination with a basement membrane.Line external body surfaces,Line hollow body tubes and organs,Function as a barrier,Function as a transport membrane
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| Connective tissue cells | Is the most diverse; including blood cells, bone cells, fat cells, and many other kinds of cells;Provide physical support for other structures such as tendons, ligaments, bones;
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| what is the function of the endocrine system? | provide communication b/w cells of the body through the release of hormones into the bloodstream
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| what is the function of the nervous system? | provide commuicaion b/w cells of the body through electrical signals n the release of neurotransmitters into small gaps b/w certain cells
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| what is the function of the musculoskeletal system? | support the body; allow voluntary movement of the body; allow facial expressions
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| what is the function of the cardiovascular system? | transport molecules throughout the body in the bloodstream
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| what is the function of the respiratory system? | bring oxygen into the body n eliminate carbon dioxide from the body
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| what is the function of the urinary system? | filter the blood to regulate acidity, blood volume, n ion concentrations; eliminate wastes
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| what is the function of the gastrointestinal system? | break down food n absorb it into the body
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| what is the function of the reproductive system? | generate offspring
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| what is the function of the immune system? | defend the body against pathogens n abnormal cells
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| what is the function of the integumentary system? | protects the body from the external environment
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| What is the main difference between exocrine and endocrine glands? | DUCTS. exocrine:secrete a product into a duct leading to the external environment. Endocrine glands:secrete hormones, chemicals that communicate a message to cells of the body, into the bloodstream
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| What is the function of elastin? | gives the tissue elasticity
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| What is the function of collagen? | gives the tissue tensile strength & flexibility
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| What is an internal environment? | Immediate environment of most cells, =Extracellular fluid which includes tissue fluid and plasma,Plasma is fluid around blood cells,Tissue fluid (also known as interstitial fluid) is fluid around all other cells
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| Across gastrointestinal tract: Absorption | the water, inorganic salts, and nutrients from digested food are transported from the lumen of GI tract to the bloodstream
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| Across & In the kidneys: Filtration | fluid from the bloodstream first enters tubules non-selectively
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| Across & In the kidneys: Reabsorption | then as this fluid travels along the length of the tubules, needed materials(including water,inorganic salts, nutrients) are selectively transported back into the bloodstream
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| Across & In the kidneys: Secretion | unneeded materials are selectively transported from the bloodstream into the tubules. (In GI tract: to aid in the digestion of food, the stomach uses materials from the blood to produce acids n proteins that are then transported into the lumen
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| In the kidneys:Excretion | urine is eliminated from the body
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| Where is most of our total body water? | intracellular fluid (ICF)
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| What is ICF? What is its characteristics (protein and ions)? | Water present in fluid located inside cells, About 2/3 of TBW,Contains many proteins and rich in K+ n low in Na+
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| What is ECF? | Fluid outside cells but within body,Is the “internal environment”,1/3 of TBW, Na+ high, K+ low
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| What are the two portions of ECF? What are its characteristics of each portion (protein and ions)? | subdivisions: Plasma: the liquid component of blood, relatively rich in proteins; Interstitial Fluid: containing few proteins(0,1 or 2molecules or no proteins) and rich in Na+, present outside the blood and bathes most of the cells in the body
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| What is homeostasis? | The maintenance of constant conditions in the internal environment means that the composition, temperature, and volume of ECF do not change significantly under normal conditions.
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| How is homeostasis primarily regulated? | negative feedback
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| Define regulated variable and give examples | is not free to vary but is instead regulated to stay within relatively narrow limits; body temperature,negative feedback. ex.blood volume,body temperature, composition,blood glucose,blood pH,plasma concentrations of potassium, sodium, calcium
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| Define negative feedback and give examples | if a regulated variable increases, the system responds by making it decrease and vice versa. ex.blood glucose, blood pressure
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| what are the components of the negative feedback? | sensors, integrating center, effectors; and set point, error signal
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| sensors= receptors | sensors which detect stimuli, include thermoreceptors,chemoreceptors, n baroreceptors
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| integrating center | which receives signals (input) from the sensors, compares the regulated variable to the set point, and orchestrates the appropriate response. mainly in the brain.ex.hypothalamus->sends signals to effectors
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| effectors | responsible for body responses; include
•Muscles (smooth, striated, and cardiac)
•Glands
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| set point | expected value of regulated variable. Examples
Core body temperature = 37º C
Blood glucose (sugar) = 100 mg/dL
Blood pH = 7.4
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| error signal | Any difference between the actual value and the set point
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| Define positive feedback and give examples. | the response of the system goes in the same direction as the change that sets it in motion, a few examples in the body system.ex:estrogen,oxytocin(stimulates uterine contractions during child birth n milk let down),blood clotting
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| monosaccharides,give examples | Simple sugars, a single unit, C6H12O6 (hydroxyl grps make carbohydrates polar)
Examples: glucose, fructose, and galactose
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| disaccharides,give examples | Formed by the covalent bonding of two monosaccharides.
ex.Sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (galactose + glucose), maltose (2 glucoses):ex.starch.
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| polysaccharides, give examples | Formed by the covalent bonding of several monosaccharides.
ex. Glycogen: a polymer of glucose subunits and found in animal cells.
Starch:: found in plants.
Cellulose: found in plants, humans are unable to digest and absorb it.
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| What compose triglycerides? | glycerol + 3 fatty acids; glycerol=3-carbon alcohol, fatty acid=long carbon acid chain w/ a carboxyl group (-COOH),fatty acid chains make triglycerides hydrophobic
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| What are saturated fatty acids? | contain carbons linked only by single bonds
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| What are unsaturated fatty acids? | contain one or more pairs of carbon linked by double bonds.
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| What are polyunsaturated fatty acids? | contain one or more pairs of carbon linked by more than one double bond
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| What are the differences between nonpolar and polar molecules? | nonpolar=hydrophobic, polar=hydrophilic, differ in water solubility, uneven distributed electrons=polar
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| What compose phospholipids? | Contains one glycerol as backbone.Two fatty acid as tails, which are nonpolar ,hydrophobic.A hydrophilic (polar)head, a phosphate-containing group.Are Amphipathic: in an aqueous environment, polar regions face the water, and the nonpolar regions face each
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| What are the functions of phospholipids? | amphipathic: a molecule that contains both polar n nonpolar regions.Phospholipid bilayers n micelles
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| What is amphiphathic property of a compound? | polar regions face the water, and the nonpolar regions face each tails away from water. hydrophilic (polar) head a phosphate-containing grp
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| what are steroids? | most common steroid is cholesterol,which is an important component of plasma membrane, n the precursor to all other steroids, such as testosterone,estradiol,n cortisol. A 4 fused carbon ring is the structure of steroids.all steroids fxn are hormones
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| what are the basic structures of an amino acid? | building blocks of proteins,20 different kinds of amino acids. a central carbon is bonded to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, n an R or residual group
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| how does each amino acid differ from others? | each amino acid differs from others in the characteristic of R group
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| 4 levels of protein structure? | primary,secondary,tertiary,quaternary
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| primary protein structure? | sequence of amino acids
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| secondary protein structure? | hydrogen bonding b/w amino hydrogen of one amino acid n carboxyl oxygen of another. common structures: alpha-helixes, beta-pleated sheets
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| tertiary protein structure? | formation of bends n loops in polypeptide chain due to interactions b/w R groups
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| quaternary protein structure? | formation of proteins with more than one polypeptide chain. ex.insulin, hemoglobin
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| what are the components of a nucleotide? | phosphate group(s), 5-carbon carbohydrate: ribose,deoxyribose, base-containing carbon-nitrogen ring: pyrimidines: cytosine(C),thymine(T), uracil(U),purines:adenine(A),guanine(G)
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| what are the differences b/w DNA n RNA? | DNA=stores genetic code,always in nucleus,2 strands of nucleotides=double helix,AGCT; RNA=needed for expression of genetic code,in both a cell's nucleus n its cytoplasm,a single strand of nucleotides w/ a 3'end n a 5'end,carbohydrate is ribose,bases:AGCU
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| Deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA)? | in a cell's nucleus, store the genetic information. consists of two stands of nucleotides coiled together into a double helix. the carbohydrate is deoxyribose. the bases are A,G, C, n T.
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| Ribonucleic acid (RNA)? | in both a cell's nucleus n its cytoplasm. a single strand of nucleotides w/ a 3' end n a 5' end. the bases are A,G, C, n U
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| What is law of complementary base pairing? | whenever two strands of nucleic acids are held together by hydrogen bonds, G in one stand is always paired w/ C in the opposite strand, n A w/ T in DNA (or w/ U in RNA)
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| plasma membrane structure? | lipid bilayer w/ scattered proteins n cholesterol molecules
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| plasma membrane function? | maintains boundary of cell n integrity of cell structure; embedded proteins serve multiple functions
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| nucleus structure? | surrounded by double-layered nuclear envelope
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| nucleus function? | houses the DNA, which dictates cellular function n protein synthesis
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| nucleolus structure? | dark oval structure inside the nucleus
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| nucleolus function? | synthesis of ribosomal RNA
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| cytosol structure? | gel-like fluid
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| cytosol function? | cell metabolism, storage
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| membranous organelles: Rough endoplasmic reticulum structure? | continuous w/ the nuclear envelope; flattened sacs dotted w/ ribosomes
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| membranous organelles: Rough endoplasmic reticulum function? | protein synthesis n post-translational processing
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| membranous organelles: smooth endoplasmic reticulum structure? | continuous w/ rough endoplasmic reticulum; tubular structure w/o ribosomes
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| membranous organelles: smooth endoplasmic reticulum function? | lipid synthesis n post-translational processing of proteins; transport of molecules from endoplasmic reticulum to golgi apparatus; calcium storage
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| membranous organelles: golgi apparatus structure? | series of flattened sacs near the endoplasmic reticulum
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| membranous organelles: golgi apparatus function? | post-translational processing; packaging n sorting of proteins
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| membranous organelles: mitochondria structure? | oval-shaped, w/ an outer membrane n an inner membrane w/ folds called cristae that project into the matrix
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| membranous organelles: mitochondria function? | ATP synthesis
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| membranous organelles: lysosomes structure? | granular, saclike; scattered throughout the cytoplasm
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| membranous organelles: lysosomes function? | breakdown of cellular n extracellular debris
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| membranous organelles: peroxisomes structure? | similar in appearance to lysosomes, but smaller
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| membranous organelles: peroxisomes function? | breakdown of toxic substances, including hydogen peroxide
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| nonmembranous organelles: vaults structure? | small, barrel-shaped
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| nonmembranous organelles: vaults function? | unknown; possibly transport of molecules b/w nucleus n cytoplasm
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| nonmembranous organelles: ribosomes structure? | granular organelles composed of proteins n rRNA; located in cytosol or on surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum
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| nonmembranous organelles: ribosomes function? | translation of mRNA to synthesize proteins
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| nonmembranous organelles: centrioles structure? | two cylindrical bundles of protein filaments that are perpendicular to each other
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| nonmembranous organelles: centrioles function? | direction of mitotic spindle development during cell division
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| cytoskeleton structure? | composed of protein filaments, including microfilaments, intermediate filaments, n microtubules
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| cytoskeleton function? | structural support of cell; cell movement n contraction
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| cell-to-cell adhesions: tight junctions? | proteins are called occludins link two adjacent cells together; nearly impermeable adhesions. found in epithelial tissue: organs of the GI tract; tubules in kidneys.
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| cell-to-cell adhesions: desmosomes? | are strong junctions b/w cells in tissue subject to stress, such as heart, uterus, n skin. are filamentous junction
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| cell-to-cell adhesions: gap junctions? | two adjacent cells are connected by membrane protein, connexons. Enable ions n small molecules to move b/w the two cells. provide direct electrical n metabolic coupling, such as in the heart
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| genes? | portions of DNA that code for a particular protein or proteins; only one sense strand contains the actual code
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| triplets? | the three-base sequences that code for an amino acid
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| codons? | transcribed mRNA codons are complementary to the code in DNA triplets
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| what is the initiator codon? what protein does it code for? | AUG, is found in every mRNA, also codes for the methionine
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| what is transcription? | DNA->RNA (mRNA, rRNA, n tRNA)
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| where does transcription occur? | occurs in the nucleus
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| what are the steps of transcription? | first step:the uncoiling of DNA n its separation into two strands. Role of RNA polymerase:1.binds to promoter sequence of DNA,2.DNA uncoils n separates,3.allow free RNA nucleotides to align w/ the DNA template.4.catalyzes formation of bonds b/w nucleotide
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| continued transcription steps? | 5.RNA polymerase moves down DNA, RNA elongates.Post-transcriptional processing:1. removal of introns, sliding together of exons which contains code.2.addition of CAP to 5'end, which is necessary for initiation of translation,3.adding poly A tail to 3'end
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| what is translation? | RNA -> polypeptides
requires mRNA,tRNA, rRNA(ribosomes)
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| where does translation occur? | occurs in cytoplasm
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| 1.what are the steps of translation? | initiation of translation: initiation factors bind to the CAP region of a mRNA n to the small ribosomal subunit.it triggers small ribosomal subunit binds to mRNA.tRNA w/ methionine(met;initiator tRNA) is loaded into small subunit.
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| 2.continued steps of translation? | large subunit binds such that the first tRNA is located in the P site of the ribosome. initiation factors are released. the first tRNA in the P site, a second tRNA w/ the appropriate anticodon enters the A site.An enzyme, peptidyl transferase,
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| 3.continued steps of translation? | in the ribosome catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond b/w two amino acids.A peptide bond is formed b/w the first amino acid, always methionine, (in the P site) and the second amino acid (in the A site.methionine is then released from tRNA,n the free
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| 4.continued steps of translation? | tRNA leaves the P site. The ribosome moves down the mRNA three bases (one codon), placing the second tRNA in the P site.New tRNA enters to the A side,bringing in the third amino acid.A peptide bond is formed again.
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| 5.continued steps of translation? | The process continues until a termination codon is reached on the mRNA
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| 1.Sequence of Translation | 1.Binding of small subunit to mRNA
2.Binding of initiator tRNA with Met to mRNA
3.Binding of large subunit to mRNA
4.Binding of tRNA with 2nd amino acid to A site
5.Formation of covalent bond(peptide bond) b/w Met and 2nd amino acid
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| 2.Sequence of Translation | 6.tRNA is released from P site
7.Ribosome moves down the mRNA one codon
8. New tRNA with its amino acid binds to A site
9. Continues until a termination codon is reached
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| Destination of Proteins? | •Translation requires ribosomes
•Free in cytosol
•Attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)
•Ultimate destination depends on leader sequence
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| leader sequence determines ? | -First, whether a protein will be synthesized in the cytosol or in rough ER.
-Second, whether proteins synthesized in cytosol will remain there (no leader sequence)or enter a mitochondrion, a peroxisome or the nucleus.
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| From rough ER: | -Polypeptide moves to the lumen of smooth ER -> transport vesicles ->Golgi apparatus (packaging)->secretory vesicles->secreted from cell, lysosome, or plasma membrane.
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| what does proteins need to go outside cell? | if go outside cell need to be synthesized in Rough ER & leader sequence.
no leader sequence then proteins stay inside cell.
proteins made by free ribosomes they can't never go outside cell.
If go outside cell need leader sequence
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Created by:
nely.nieto
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