From DNA to Proteins
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| This type of virus takes over a bacterium's genetic machinery and directs it to make more viruses | Bacteriophage
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| The small units that make up DNA | Nucleotides
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| Model in which two strands of DNA wind around each other like a twisted ladder | Double helix
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| In DNA, thymine (T) pairs with | Adenine (A)
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| In DNA, cytosine (C) pairs with | Guanine (G)
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| In DNA, adenine (A) pairs with | Thymine (T)
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| In DNA, guanine (G) pairs with | Cytosine(C)
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| T pairs with A and C pairs with G | base pairing rules
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| The process by which DNA is copied during the cell cycle | Replication
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| A group of enzymes that bond nucleotides together during replication | DNA polymerases
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| Defined by Francis Crick, states that information flows in one direction, from DNA to RNA to proteins | central dogma
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| ribonucleic acid | RNA
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| Chain of nucleotides, each made of a sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing base; temporary copy of DNA that is used then destroyed | RNA
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| The process of copying a sequence of DNA to produce a complementary strand of RNA | Transcription
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| enzymes that bond nucleotides together in a chain to make a new RNA molecule | RNA polymerases
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| very large enzymes composed of many proteins that play a variety of roles in the transcription process | RNA polymerases
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| an intermediate message that is translated to form a protein | Messenger RNA (mRNA)
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| Forms part of ribosomes, a cell's protein factories | Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
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| Brings amino acids from the cytoplasm to a ribosome to help make the growing protein | Transfer RNA (tRNA)
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| The process that converts an mRNA message into a polypeptide | Translation
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| Three-nucleotide sequence that codes for an amino acid | Codon
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| Three _____ signal the end of the amino acid chain | Stop codons
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| One _____ signals the start of translation and the amino acid methionine | Start codon
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| Set of three nucleotides that is complementary to an mRNA codon | Anticodon
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| DNA segment that allows a gene to be transcribed | promoter
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| Helps RNA polymerase find where a gene starts | Promoter
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| DNA segment that turns a gene "on" or "off"; interacts with proteins that increase the rate of transcription or block transcription from occurring | Operator
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| Region of DNA that includes a promoter, an operator, and one or more structural genes that code for all the proteins needed to do a specific task | Operon
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| In eukaryotes; nucleotide segments that code for parts of the protein | Exons
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| Mostly in eukaryotes; nucleotide segments that intervene between exons | Introns
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| Change in an organism's DNA | Mutation
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| Mutation in which one nucleotide is substituted for another | point mutation
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| Mutation involving the insertion or deletion of a nucleotide in the DNA sequence | Frameshift mutation
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| Agents in the environment that can change DNA by speeding up the rate of replication errors and, in some cases, even breaking DNA strands | mutagens
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| Two people that figure out the DNA structure using models | Watson and Crick
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| Found out that pneumonia bacteria could be transformed by some substance | Griffith
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| These two people used radioactive isotopes and bacteriophage viruses to prove that DNA was the genetic material | Hershey and Chase
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| This person proved that the transforming principle in the bacteria was DNA | Avery
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| These two people used X-ray crystallography to help figure out the structure of DNA | Franklin and Wilkins
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| Sides of a nucleotide | Sugar and phosphate
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| Rungs of a nucleotide | Nitrogen bases
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| Type of bonds holding nucleotide bases together | Hydrogen bonds
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| Enzyme that splits DNA strand down the middle | Helicase
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| 2 strands (DNA or RNA) | DNA
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| 1 strand (DNA or RNA) | RNA
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| In RNA, Adenine (U) pairs with | Uracil (U)
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| Deoxyribonucleic acid | DNA
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| Ribonucleic acid | RNA
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| Gene expression is controlled in prokaryotes and eukaryotes mainly at ________ | The beginning of transcription
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| Gene expression controlled from many points | Eukaryotes
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| Genes are expressed mainly during transcription | Prokaryotes
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| Proteins contain ______ but very little ______ | sulfur; phosphorous
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| DNA contains _______ but no _______ | phosphorous; sulfur
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| Identified DNA in the nucleus of the cell in 1870 | Meishcher
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| Chromosomes are made of _____ and ________ | DNA; protein
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| Why did scientists think protein was the cell's hereditary material? | It's more complex than DNA
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| Why did scientists think DNA was the cell's hereditary material? | It's in the nucleus and had no other known uses
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| 1st step of transcription | DNA unzips
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| 2nd step of transcription | Code copied onto mRNA
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| 3rd step of transcription | mRNA detaches
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| How are transcription and replication similar? | They both copy DNA codes and occur in the nucleus
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| Transcription ends with the production of _____ | RNA
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| Replication ends with the production of ____________ | 2 identical strands of DNA
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| Why is gene expression regulated in prokaryotic cells? | It is simpler in prokaryotic cells than in eukaryotic cells
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| In prokaryotic cells, gene expression is typically regulated at the start of __________ | Transcription
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| Why do the cells in your body differ from each other? | Different sets of genes are expressed in different types of cells
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| What role do transcription factors play in a cell? | They help RNA polymerase know where a gene starts
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| What is a TATA box? | A seven-nucleotide promoter
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| What is "sonic hedgehog" an example of? | A gene that controls the expression of other genes
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| Which type of mutation affects more genes, a gene mutation or a chromosomal mutation? | Chromosomal
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| What is translocation? | A piece of one chromosome moves to a nonhomologous chromosome
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| What leads to gene duplication? | During crossing over, if the chromosomes do not align the segments may differ in size, and one chromosome may have two copies of a gene
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| For a mutation to be passed to offspring, in what type of cell must it occur? | Germ cell
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| Can DNA polymerase catch and correct every replication error? | No
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| How does UV light damage the DNA strand? | It can cause neighboring thymine nucleotides to break their hydrogen bonds to adenine and bond with each other instead
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| Purines are ____ ring structures | Double
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| Pyrimidines are ______ ring structures | Single
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| Where does DNA replication take place in a eukaryotic cell? | Nucleus
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| When is DNA replicated during the cell cycle? | Synthesis
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| Why does DNA replication need to occur? | To assure that every cell has a complete set of identical genetic information
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| A pattern (a single DNA strand can serve as one for a new strand) | Template
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| What roles do proteins play in DNA replication? | Separating DNA strands, holding strands apart while they serve as templates, and bonding new nucleotides together.
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| What must be broken for the DNA strand to separate? | Hydrogen bonds
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| Why is DNA replication called semiconservative? | One old strand is conserved, and one complementary new strand is made.
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| Human chromosomes have hundred of ______________, where the DNA is unzipped so replication can begin. | Origins of replication
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| DNA polymerase has a _________ function that enables it to detect errors and correct them. | Proofreading
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| What actually does the work of replicating the DNA molecule? | Enzymes and other proteins
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| What is meant by DNA replicates bidirectionally? | DNA unzips in opposite directions
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| Where does DNA begin to come apart when it begins to replicate? | In the middle
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| The free-floating nucleotides are added on to the divided DNA by what enzyme? | DNA polymerase
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| When the new nucleotides are added on, a purine always attaches to a __________ to ensure that the radius is the same for the DNA molecule. | Pyrimidine
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| Purines | A and G
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| Pyrimidines | T and c
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| What enzyme is responsible for checking the accuracy of the DNA molecule? | DNA polymerase
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| DNA replicates at _____ points along the entire length of the DNA molecule. | Many
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| What two scientists figure out the replication of DNA? | Meselsohn and Stahl
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| A disease caused by a point mutation | Sickle cell anemia
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| A disease caused by a deletion resulting in a frameshift mutation | Cystic fibrosis
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| Mutations can add_____ to a population particularly in single-celled organisms | Variations
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| Most non-adaptive mutations are removed by __________ | Natural selection
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| How mutations change phenotypes: May cause premature _____________ | Stop codon
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| How mutations change phenotype: May change ________ shape | Protein
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| How mutations change phenotypes: May change gene __________ | Regulation
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| Mutations may not affect phenotypes: May be silent, particularly if in ___ position of triplet code | third
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| Mutations may not change phenotypes: May occur in _________ region | noncoding
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| Mutations may not change phenotypes: May not affect protein ________ | Folding
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| Prokaryotic cells turn genes on and off by controlling ___________ | Transcription
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| Genes for a related process are grouped together with a _______ that allows the genes to be "turned on or off" | Promoter
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| A section of the DNA called an ________ actually turns the genes on and off. | Operator
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| Gene expression in ________ is more complicated due to specialized cells | Eukaryotes
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| There are no ________ in eukaryotes | Operons
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| Adds the RNA nucleotides | RNA polymerase
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| Translation occurs in | Ribosomes
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| Transcription occurs in | Nucleus
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| Replication occurs in | Nucleus
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| Amino acids are bonded together by _______ bonds | Peptide
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| Base pairs proved by | Chargaff
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