Integrative Physiology Ch. 9 - The Central Nervous System
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| How is it that combinations of neurons linked together into chains or networks collectively process emergent properties not found in any single neuron, e.g., thoughts, memories, etc.? | show 🗑
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| show | Computers lack plasticity, the ability to change circuit connections and function in response to sensory input and past experience
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| show | Behaviors linked to feeling and emotions
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| show | Behaviors linked to thinking
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| Do paramecium have integrating centers or brain function of any kind? | show 🗑
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| The first multicellular animals to develop neurons | show 🗑
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| Is the nervous system of a jellyfish like the nervous system of a human? | show 🗑
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| In _____ we see the beginnings of a nervous system as we know it in higher animals | show 🗑
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| show | A rudimentary brain consists of a cluster of nerve cell bodies concentrated in the head (*cephalic*) region. Two large nerves called *nerve cords* come off the primitive brain and lead to a nerve network throughout the body
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| show | Segmented worms, or annelids, such as the earthworm
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| Structure of the nervous system in the segmented worms (annelids), e.g., earthworm | show 🗑
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| Why are eyes, smell, taste, etc. located at the head? | show 🗑
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| show | The octopus (a cephalopod mollusk) which happens to have the most sophisticated behavior
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| The most dramatic change in brain development occurring in vertebrates (compared to invertebrates) | show 🗑
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| show | In fish it’s a small bulge dedicated to processing olfactory information. In birds and rodents it’s more developed. In humans it’s the largest part of the brain and it is what makes us human
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| show | The region of the *hindbrain* devoted to coordinating movement and balance
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| show | The CNS consists of layers of neural tissue surrounding a fluid-filled central cavity lined with epithelium
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| show | In the very early embryo cells that will become the nervous system lie in a flattened region called the neural plate. As development proceeds neural plate cells along the edge migrate toward the midline.
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| Neural tube | show 🗑
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| show | Lumen of the neural tube remains hollow and becomes the central cavity of the CNS. Cells lining the neural tube either differentiates into epithelial ependyma or remains as neural stem cells. Outer layers become glia & neurons of the CNS
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| By the 4th week of human development, the anterior portion of the neural tube has begun to specialize into the three regions of the brain: | show 🗑
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| show | …the spinal cord
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| By week 6, the CNS has formed the seven major divisions that are present as birth: | show 🗑
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| show | The cerebrum and diencephalon are located in the forebrain. The cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata are divisions of the hindbrain.
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| Ventricles of the brain | show 🗑
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| The central canal of the spinal cord | show 🗑
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| show | Consists of unmyelinated nerve cell bodies, dendrites and axon terminals. They’re assembled in an organized fashion in both the brain and spinal cord. They form layers in some parts and clusters (nuclei) in others
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| White matter of the brain | show 🗑
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| show | Bundles of axons that connect different regions of the CNS (i.e., they’re the equivalent to nerves of the PNS)
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| show | Soft and jellylike because, although individual neurons and glial cells have highly organized internal cytoskeletons that maintain cell shape and orientation, neural tissue has minimal matrix
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| show | …depend on external protection from trauma
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| What external support and protection does neural tissue get, if not from matrix? | show 🗑
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| What encases the brain and spinal cord? | show 🗑
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| show | The bones, stacked upon disks of connective tissue, which make up the vertebral column.
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| show | By passing through notches between the stacked vertebrae
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| The meninges – what is their function? | show 🗑
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| Starting from the bones and moving toward the neural tissue, the three membranes of the meninges are: | show 🗑
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| Dura mater | show 🗑
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| Arachnoid membrane | show 🗑
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| Pia mater | show 🗑
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| show | Blood, cerebrospinal fluid, and interstitial fluid
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| show | Interstitial fluid lies within the pia mater. Cerebrospinal fluid is found in the ventricles and in the subarachnoid space
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| How do the cerebrospinal and interstitial fluid compartments communicate with each other? | show 🗑
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| Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) | show 🗑
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| show | It’s a specialized region on the walls of the ventricles that secrete CSF. It’s similar to kidney tissue and consists of capillaries and transporting epithelium derived from the ependyma. It pumps sodium/other solutes from plasma into ventricles
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| show | …water is also drawn into the ventricles
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| From the ventricles, CSF flows into… | show 🗑
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| Recap: subarachnoid space | show 🗑
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| show | It’s finally absorbed back into the blood by *arachnoid villi* on the arachnoid membrane in the cranium
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| show | The rate of fluid flow is sufficient to replenish the entire volume of CSF about three times per day
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| show | Physical protection and chemical protection
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| show | The buoyancy of CSF reduces weight of brain 30-fold, decreasing pressure on blood vessels/nerves. The fluid also provides protective padding: it’s minimally compressible, cushioning the brain during trauma
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| show | CSF exchanges solutes with the interstitial fluid of the CNS and provides a route by which wastes can be removed
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| show | AKA spinal tap, the withdrawing of fluid from the subarachnoid space between vertebrae at the lower end of the spinal cord. The presence of proteins or blood cells in the CSF indicates an infection
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| show | Not a literal barrier; it refers to the highly selective permeability of brain capillaries that shelter the brain from toxins and from fluctuations in hormones, ions, and neuroactive substances, e.g., neurotransmitters, in the blood
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| show | In most capillaries, leaky cell-cell junctions and pores allow free exchange of solutes between the plasma and interstitial fluid. In brain capillaries, endothelial cells form TIGHT JUNCTIONS which prevent such movement
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| How do astrocyte foot projections play a role in the BBB (blood-brain barrier)? | show 🗑
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| show | Only material that can diffuse through the various channels on the capillary endothelium (transcellular transport). If it can’t pass through any of the channels, it can’t cross the blood-brain barrier (unless lipophilic)
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| What kind of transport occurs across the BBB? | show 🗑
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| Parkinson’s Disease | show 🗑
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| show | A precursor L-dopa can be transported across the BBB via an amino acid transporter into the interstitial fluid where it’s catalyzed to dopamine. Problem? Only 5% is absorbed into brain, remainder causes bad side effects
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| show | No, lipophilic materials can diffuse through the membranes
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| Are ALL blood vessels in the brain protected by the BBB? | show 🗑
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| Special metabolic requirements of neural tissue | show 🗑
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| show | 15%
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| show | Only a few minutes. Because the brain needs both O2 and glucose
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| How much of the body’s glucose consumption occurs in the brain? | show 🗑
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| How can diabetes affect negatively affect the uptake of glucose in the brain? | show 🗑
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| Paralysis | show 🗑
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| show | Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral
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| Each segment of the spinal regions gives rise to a bilateral pair of: | show 🗑
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| Just before a spinal nerve joins the spinal cord, it divides into two branches called: | show 🗑
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| What are the two roots called and what are their functions? | show 🗑
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| Dorsal root ganglia | show 🗑
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| Describe the relative positions of the white and gray matter when viewing a cross section of the spinal cord | show 🗑
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| Dorsal horns | show 🗑
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| Ventral horns | show 🗑
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| show | …fiber-optic cables that telephone companies use to carry our communication systems
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| Overall structure and function of white matter in the spinal cord | show 🗑
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| show | The portion of the white matter of the spinal cord which takes sensory information to the brain. They occupy the dorsal and external lateral portions of the spinal cord
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| Descending tracts | show 🗑
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| Propriospinal tracts | show 🗑
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| show | Yes, for simple *spinal reflexes*, with signals passing from a sensory neuron through the gray matter to an efferent neuron
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| What affect does the spinal cord have on information being sent through it to or from the CNS? | show 🗑
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| Summary -- the brain stem consists of the: | show 🗑
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| show | Cerebellum
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| show | Thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal gland
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| show | Cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system (amygdala and hippocampus)
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| show | Brain stem
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| Cranial nerves | show 🗑
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| show | Olfactory nerve (sensory nerve receiving information from the nose) and vagus nerve (mixed nerve that’s sensory as well as efferents to many internal organs, muscles, and glands
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| show | Characterized by diffuse, discrete groups of nerve cell bodies located throughout the brain stem. Involved in arousal, sleep, muscle tone, stretch reflexes, breathing, blood pressure, pain modulation
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| Describe the ventricle in the brain stem | show 🗑
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| show | AKA “medulla” is the transition from the spinal cord to the brain. Its white matter includes ascending somatosensory tracts and descending corticospinal tracts
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| show | White matter that brings sensory information to the brain
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| show | White matter that conveys information from the cerebrum to the spinal cord
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| show | About 90% of corticospinal tracts cross the midline to the opposite side of the body in a region of the medulla known as the pyramids.
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| As a result of the crossover that occurs in the pyramids of the medulla… | show 🗑
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| show | Includes nuclei that control many involuntary functions, such as blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, and vomiting
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| show | A bulbous protrusion on the ventral side of the brain stem above the medulla and below the midbrain. Its primary function is as a relay station for information transfer between the cerebellum and cerebrum. Also coordinates breathing
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| Midbrain | show 🗑
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| Cerebellum | show 🗑
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| show | Lies between the brain stem and cerebrum. Composed of: the thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary, and pineal glands
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| show | Many small nuclei that occupy the diencephalon. The thalamus receives sensory fibers from the optic tract, ears, and spinal cord and motor information from the cerebellum. It projects the info to the cerebrum where it’s processes
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| Why is the thalamus often described as a relay station? | show 🗑
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| Can the thalamus act as an integrating center? | show 🗑
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| show | Lies beneath the thalamus. It is the center for homeostasis and contains centers for various behavioral drives e.g., hunger and thirst. Output from the hypothalamus drives many functions of the autonomic system and endocrine functions
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| From where does the hypothalamus receive input? | show 🗑
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| Where does the hypothalamus output travel? | show 🗑
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| Posterior pituitary | show 🗑
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| show | A gland that secretes the hormone melatonin
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| show | Hypothalamus
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| show | Cerebrum
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| Corpus callosum | show 🗑
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| show | Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital
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| The lobes of the brains are named for… | show 🗑
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| show | Composed of grooves (sulci, or singular: sulcus) and dividing convolutions (gyri, or singular: gyrus)
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| The cause and significance of the sulci and gyri | show 🗑
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| show | Rodents have brains with relatively smooth surfaces, humans are very convoluted; so much that, if inflated to a smooth surface, it would appear three times larger
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| Three major regions of cerebral gray matter | show 🗑
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| Cerebral cortex | show 🗑
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| show | AKA basal nuclei, are involved in the control of movement. Note: the term “ganglia” is usually preferred to be used for structures outside the CNS, but basal “ganglia” is used a lot in clinical practice
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| show | Surrounds the brain stem and probably represents the most primitive region of the cerebrum. It acts as the link between higher cognitive functions, such as reasoning, and more primitive responses, such as fear
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| show | Amygdala and singulate gyrus: linked to emotion and memory; and the hippocampus: associated with learning and memory
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| show | Found mostly in the interior. Bundles of fibers allow different regions of the cortex to communicate with one another and transfer information from one hemisphere to the other, primarily through the corpus callosum
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| show | Estimated to be 200 million
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| Where does information entering and leaving the cerebrum pass through? | show 🗑
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| What makes the brain more complex than a simple reflex pathway? | show 🗑
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| show | Sensory input -> afferent pathway -> integration -> efferent pathway -> response
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| show | The sensory system, cognitive system, and behavioral state system all initiate responses. Subsequently, information about the physiological or behavioral responses created by motor output feeds back to the above systems
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| show | Monitors the internal and external environments and initiates reflex responses.
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| show | Resides in the cerebral cortex and is able to initiate voluntary responses.
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| show | Resides in the brain and governs sleep-wake cycles and other intrinsic behaviors
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| show | (1) sensory areas, (2) motor areas, and (3) association areas
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| show | (Also called sensory fields), which receive sensory input and translate it into perception (awareness)
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| Motor areas of the cerebral cortex | show 🗑
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| Association areas of the cerebral cortex | show 🗑
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| show | No, for one thing, functional specialization is not symmetrical across the cerebral cortex, hence the term “cerebral lateralization” or “cerebral dominance” AKA commonly called left brain-right brain dominance
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| show | AKA cerebral dominance AKA left brain-right brain dominance: language and verbal skills tend to be concentrated on the left side of the brain, with spatial skills concentrated on the right side.
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| Right-handed vs. left-handed people | show 🗑
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| Example of plasticity in the brain: losing a finger | show 🗑
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| show | Primary somatic sensory cortex, visual cortex, auditory cortex, olfactory cortex, and gustatory cortex
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| show | (AKA somatosensory cortex) located in the parietal lobe, it is the termination point of pathways from the skin, musculoskeletal system, and viscera. Information processed: touch, temperature, pain, itch, and body position
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| Damage to the somatosensory cortex results in… | show 🗑
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| show | Located in the occipital lobe, receives information from the eyes
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| Auditory cortex | show 🗑
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| show | A small region in the temporal lobe, receives input from chemoreceptors in the nose
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| Gustatory cortex | show 🗑
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| Where is all of the aggregated sensory information transformed into perception? | show 🗑
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| show | Light waves of different frequencies are perceived as “colors”; pressure waves hitting the inner ear are perceives as “sound”; and chemicals binding to chemoreceptors are perceived as “taste” or “smell”
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| Motor output from the CNS can be divided into three major types (and brief definition): | show 🗑
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| show | Simple stimulus-response pathways, e.g., knee-jerk reflex, are processed in the spinal cord/brain stem – note: they can be modified or overridden by input from the cognitive system
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| show | By the cognitive system and originate in the primary motor cortex and motor association area in the frontal lobes of the cerebrum
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| show | From sensory areas as well as from the cerebellum and basal ganglia. Remember: since information is sent through the pyramidal cells they crossover; damage to one side of the brain causes paralysis on the opposite side of the body
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| Neuroendocrine and visceral responses are coordinated primarily in… | show 🗑
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| The autonomic life functions we need such as breathing and blood pressure is mainly controlled by… | show 🗑
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| show | …the hypothalamus, via neural, hormonal, or behavioral responses
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| show | Parts of the reticular formation in the brain stem, the hypothalamus, and the limbic system
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| The diffuse modulatory systems | show 🗑
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| The four diffuse modulatory systems, classified according to the neurotransmitter they secrete: | show 🗑
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| The diffuse modulatory systems regulate brain function by influencing: | show 🗑
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| show | The body’s state of arousal or awareness of self and environment. The reticular activating system plays a large role in controlling consciousness.
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| show | A diffuse collection of neurons in the reticular formation
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| Physiologically, what distinguishes being awake from various stages of sleep? | show 🗑
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| show | Surface electrodes placed on or in the scalp detect depolarizations of the cortical neurons in the region just under the electrode
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| show | Awake: many neurons are firing but not in a coordinated fashion. Presumably the desynchronization of electrical activity in waking states is produced by ascending signals from the reticular formation. Sleep: synchronized waves
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| show | As a person’s state of arousal decreases, the frequency of the wave decreases and the amplitude increases
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| Sleep | show 🗑
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| show | Various theories: conserve energy, avoid predators, allow body to repair itself, enhance immune response, and to process memories
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| Is sleep a passive or active state? | show 🗑
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| Stages of sleep | show 🗑
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| Slow-wave sleep (deep sleep) | show 🗑
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| REM sleep | show 🗑
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| show | Control of homeostatic functions is depressed and body temperature falls toward ambient temperature
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| Which period does most dreaming take place? | show 🗑
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| The cycles in a typical eight-hour sleep | show 🗑
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| Historical test to determine what causes sleepiness | show 🗑
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| Sleep-inducing factors that have been discovered. Curiously…? | show 🗑
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| Why do we need sleep more when we are sick? | show 🗑
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| Which stage of sleep does sleep walking occur? | show 🗑
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| show | Sleep-wake rhythms that follow a 24-hour light-dark cycle.
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| What happens if organisms are placed in the dark or light constantly? | show 🗑
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| Suprachiasmatic nucleus | show 🗑
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| Simplified overview of the workings of the suprachiasmatic nucleus | show 🗑
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| show | Cortisol and melatonin. Note: melatonin (secreted by the pineal gland) actually appears to feedback to the suprachiasmatic nucleus, hence it’s perceived ability to “reset” circadian rhythms!
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| show | Caffeine is an antagonist of adenosine receptors. Adenosine has the function of suppressing neurons that promote wakefulness. If inhibited, wakefulness ensues
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| The center of emotion in the human brain | show 🗑
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| show | Sensory stimuli feeds into the cerebral cortex where they’re perceived and integrated in the association areas; then to the limbic system which creates emotion; then to the hypothalamus/brain stem initiating responses
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| Awareness of emotion | show 🗑
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| show | Internal signals that shape voluntary behaviors, e.g., eating, drinking, sex, curiosity, etc. Some of these behaviors are linked to survival while others (e.g., curiosity) are linked to emotions
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| show | Motivational states that have three properties in common: (1) they create increase CNS arousal or alertness; (2) they create goal-oriented behavior; and (3) they’re capable of coordinating disparate behaviors to achieve that goal
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| How do motivated behaviors work in parallel with autonomic and endocrine responses in the body? | show 🗑
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| show | Eating, curiosity, sex drive, etc.
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| Satiety | show 🗑
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| show | A physiological state accompanied by increased activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine in certain parts of the brain
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| show | They increase the effectiveness of dopamine in the brain, thereby increasing the pleasurable sensations perceived by the brain
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| Moods | show 🗑
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| Depression | show 🗑
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| show | A combination of genetic factors, the serotonergic and noradrenergic diffuse modulatory systems, trophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and stress
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| Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) | show 🗑
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| show | Associative and nonassociative
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| show | Occurs when two stimuli are associated with each other, e.g., Pavlov’s famous experiment.
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| Review: Pavlov’s experiment | show 🗑
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| Nonassociative learning | show 🗑
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| show | Decreased response to an irrelevant stimulus that is repeated over and over. E.g., a sudden loud noise may be startling at first, but then lose its significance over time
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| Sensitization | show 🗑
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| show | The ability to retain and recall information. There are four different types: short-term, long-term, reflexive, and declarative; they all take place through different pathways as observed via MRI and PET scans
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| Memory traces | show 🗑
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| show | Leaning a task or recalling an already learned task may involve multiple brain circuits that work in parallel (i.e., parallel processing). It helps provide backup in case one of the circuits is damaged.
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| show | It’s believed to be the means by which specific memories are generalized, allowing new information to be matched to stored information. E.g., if you’ve never seen a volleyball, you’ll still recognize it as a “ball”
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| show | Anterograde amnesia
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| The removal of what structure in the brain leads to anterograde amnesia | show 🗑
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| Short-term memory | show 🗑
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| Working memory | show 🗑
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| show | The region of the cerebral cortex responsible for keeping track of bits of information long enough to put them to use in a task that takes place after the information has been acquired. It can link short term with long term memories
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| show | Storage area that holds vast amounts of information.
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| show | Processing of information that converts short-term into long-term memory. It can take varying amounts of time, from seconds to minutes. Information passes through many intermediate levels of memory during this time
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| show | Synaptic connections of circuits involved in learning change. In some cases, new synapses form, in other cases the effectiveness of existing synapses are altered through long term potentiation or depression
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| show | Reflexive (implicit) memory and declarative (explicit) memory
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| show | Autonomic – it doesn’t require conscious processes for either creation or recall. It involves the amygdala and cerebellum. It’s acquired slowly through repetition. E.g., motor skills, procedures, and rules
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| Declarative memory | show 🗑
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| Declarative memories deal with | show 🗑
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| show | No, they can be transferred to reflexive memory with repetition. E.g., an NFL quarterback’s ability to throw a football with precise accuracy can be executed without conscious thought (i.e., muscle memory)
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| show | Trauma
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| show | Progressive neurodegenerative disease of cognitive impairment. Examined brain tissue contains extracellular plaques made of beta-amyloid protein and intracellular tangles of tau, a protein associated with microtubules
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| show | Unknown; theories include: oxidative stress and chronic inflammation.
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| Treatment for Alzheimer’s | show 🗑
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| The most complex and elaborate cognitive behavior | show 🗑
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| Where are the centers for language ability found in most people? | show 🗑
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| The ability to communicate through speech has been divided into two processes: | show 🗑
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| The integration of spoken language in the human brain involves two regions in the cerebral cortex: | show 🗑
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| show | Either the visual cortex (reading) or the auditory cortex (listening)
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| show | First goes to Wernicke’s area, then to Broca’s area. After integration and processing, output from Broca’s area to motor cortex initiates spoken word to writing
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| show | The inability to understand any spoken or visual information. The person’s own speech is hence nonsense because they’re unaware of their own errors. This condition is known as **receptive aphasia**
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| Damage to Broca’s area results in | show 🗑
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| Mechanical forms of aphasia occur as a result of… | show 🗑
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| show | The cause has both genetic and environmental components, but not known. Treated by influencing neurotransmitter release.
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Review the information in the table. When you are ready to quiz yourself you can hide individual columns or the entire table. Then you can click on the empty cells to reveal the answer. Try to recall what will be displayed before clicking the empty cell.
To hide a column, click on the column name.
To hide the entire table, click on the "Hide All" button.
You may also shuffle the rows of the table by clicking on the "Shuffle" button.
Or sort by any of the columns using the down arrow next to any column heading.
If you know all the data on any row, you can temporarily remove it by tapping the trash can to the right of the row.
To hide a column, click on the column name.
To hide the entire table, click on the "Hide All" button.
You may also shuffle the rows of the table by clicking on the "Shuffle" button.
Or sort by any of the columns using the down arrow next to any column heading.
If you know all the data on any row, you can temporarily remove it by tapping the trash can to the right of the row.
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Created by:
Intellex_
Popular Physiology sets