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What is the difference between the systematics and Linnaean approach to classifying biological organisms?
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How do you interpret phylogenetic trees?
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Bio 2 Exam 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is the difference between the systematics and Linnaean approach to classifying biological organisms? | Systematic: study of evolutionary relationships. Linnnaean: based on morphology |
| How do you interpret phylogenetic trees? | Branches represent living species, nodes represent a common ancestor. If the trait is in the study group and the out-group=ancestral. If the trait is in the study group but not in the out-group=derived. |
| What are some characteristics that are used to determine evolutionary relationships? | 1) morphology: the shape (DNA/protein behavior). 2) physiology: how the body works. CHARACTER MUST BE PRESENT OR ABSENT (it is either there or not) |
| Of these three groups: monophyletic, paraphyletic and polyphyletic groups which would represent a clade? | monophlyetic |
| What is a monophyletic group? | Monophyletic: includes the most recent common ancestor of a group and ALL of its descendants |
| What is a polyphyletic group? | Polyphyletic: does not include the most recent common ancestor of all members of the group |
| What is a paraphyletic group? | Paraphyletic: include the most recent common ancestor BUT no all of the descendants. |
| What is an out group? | Out-group: a species or group of species that is NOT a member of the study group but is ancestral to ALL members of the study group (but closely related). |
| How is an out group used to construct a phylogenetic tree? | This is used as a reference point to start the tree. The appearance of the characters in the study group compared to the out-group can show the order of which the characters appeared in the organisms. |
| How does the concept of parsimony influence the construction of phylogenetic trees? | number of evolutionary changes |
| What are molecular clocks? | Used to determine the relationship and or age of molecular characteristics in the absence of the fossil record |
| What are the three domains of life? | Eukarya, Bacteria, Archaea |
| What are some problems with the older 5 kingdoms? | some members of Monera were vastly different from each other and Protista were polyphyletic (some related to other kingdoms) |
| What are some evidence supporting the assertion that viruses are living organisms? | Contains biological macromolecules(DNA & protein), can reproduce |
| What are some evidence refuting the assertion that viruses are living organisms? | Not cells (protein is protecting come genetic material), can’t reproduce on its own (needs host cell to infect), can’t preform metabolism (rely on host cell to make everything that it needs) |
| What is the difference between naked and enveloped viruses? | Naked: viruses only made of protein and genome. Envelope: virus that contains an envelope (a lipid bilayer stolen from host cell incorporated into structure of viruses |
| What is the general structure of viruses? | Helical capsid, iscosahedral capsid, nucleic acid, glycolproteins(spikes), capsomere, envelope |
| What is a helical capsid? | Hollow tube that protects the genome |
| What is a nucleic acid? | determine the size and shape of the virus |
| What is a iscosahedral capsid? | Building blocks arranged into triangles |
| What is a glycoprotein? | Spikes, that help the virus attach to the host cell |
| What is a capsomere? | individual building blocks of capsid |
| What is an envelope? | lipid bilayer stolen from host cell incorporated into structure of viruses |
| What are the different forms of viral genomes? | DNA and RNA single and double stranded |
| What is the difference between (+)ssRNA and (-)ssRNA viral genomes? | Negative: must be used as a template to produce mRNA before viral proteins can be made. Positive: can be translated directly |
| Define acronym APUTTGAR | A=attachment to host cell(binds to surface on the host), P=penetrate the plasma membrane, U=un-coating of the capsid to release genome, T= transcription, T=translation, G=genome replication, A=assembly of virus, R=release of virus |
| What is phage lytic cycle? | attach to host,viral DNA is injected to host cell,bacterial DNA is degraded,use nucleic acids of bacterial genome to replicate viral genome, then virus assembles, release virus to kill host cell |
| What is the lysogenic cycle? | virus injects DNA into host cell and circularizes, virus DNA becomes part of the host DNA forming a prophage, every time the host cell replicates, the DNA of the virus will replicate, virus will eventually enter lytic phase and leave the cell |
| What are prions? | infectious proteins that are misfiled versions of normal proteins that are found in the brain |
| ow do prions cause disease? | can cause normal proteins to become prions |
| What are the 3 basic morphologies of bacteria? | Spehrical (cocci), rod-shaped (bacilli), spiral (spirochetes) |
| What makes up a bacteria cell? | Fimbriae, capsule, flagella, cell wall, circular chromosome, sex pilus |
| What is the function of the cell wall? | maintains shape of bacteria |
| What is the function of the capsule? | some bacteria have a sticky ‘slime layer” |
| What is the function of the fimbriae? | projections on the surface of the cell that help with attachment to surfaces |
| What is the function of the sex pilus? | tube to exchange genetic material between two bacterial cells |
| What is the function of the flagella? | large projection form the cell that helps to move or propel it |
| What is the function of the circular chromosomes? | contain cell’s genome |
| What the two main categories of bacterial cell wall? | Gram positive and Gram negative |
| What is the structure of Gram positive cells and what color do they stain? | thick layer of peptidoglycan(made of many layers) that forms a strong cell wall. Appear purple |
| What is the structure of Gram negative cells and what color do they stain? | has a thin layer of peptidoglycan surrounded by and outer membrane (2 lipid bilayers) the outer membrane is made of lipoplysacchride which is polar and non-polar. Appear pink |
| What is peptidoglycan? | Sugar-amino acid complex that form a mesh net |
| Why do bacteria move? How do they accomplish this? | Find food, move away from toxic substanves, some bacteria can coordinate their activities to accomplish some common task. Move by simming(rotation of flagellum moves bacterium through liquid) Gliding(waves of contractions that push a cell over slime |
| How do flagella propel bacteria? | The filament rotates, pushing the bacterium through liquid. The hook connects the filament to the basal apparatus. The basal apparatus anchors to the flagellum to the cell |
| How is the genome of the bacterial cell organized? | Usually a single, double-stranded circular chromosome |
| What are plasmids and what information do they contain? | small, circular, double-stranded DNA that is much smaller than the genome and is outside of the genome |
| What would the consequences of combining conjugative and resistance plasmids? | Resistance: confer resistance to antibiotics. Conjugative: encodes sex pilus for mating, can exchange plasmids. Can lead to the rapid spread of antibiotic resistance in populations of bacteria |
| List a few ways that bacteria and Archaea are different. | Some can form methane as the metabolic end product, some are extrememly thermophilic, none contatin tru peptioglycan in their cell walls, none are suscepitbile to B-lactan antibitotics, all have membrane that fatty acids that are ether-linked to glycerol. |
| What are extremophiles? What are 4 examples? | Organisms living in extreme conditions. Halophiles, Thermopiles, thermoacidophiles, and methanogens |
| What are halophiles? | salt loving |
| What are thermophiles? | heat loving |
| What are thermo-acidophiles? | heat and acid loving |
| What are methanogens? | produce methane due to unique metabolism |
| How do bacteria cause disease? | Endotoxins cause fever,shock, inflammation, hemorrhage (component of Lip) Exotoxins: proteins secreted by bacteria (can cause disease in the absence of bactera |
| What are some of the biotic factors that may influence the range of an organism? | Biotic=living factors that affect the range/distribution of organisms (food sources, predators, competition, interactions between species). |
| What are some of the abiotic factors that may influence the range of an organism? | Abitoic= nonliving factors that affect the range and/or distribution of organisms (terrain, temperature, precipitation, sun, wind) |
| Describe the three types of population dispersion patterns. What factors/behaviors might lead to these population dispersion patterns? | Random distributions → individuals in the population don’t interact with each other. Uniform→ individuals are equally spaced throughout the range. Clumped → uneven distribution of resources resulting in individuals being clumped around the resources |
| What is the relationship between body size and generation time? | General Times= the average interval between birth and production of the first offspring. The smaller the body size usually leads to faster generation times |
| What is a survivorship curve, and name the three types of survivorship curves. | Survivorship curve = percent of orignal population that survives to a given age. Type 1, Type 2, Type 3 |
| What life history traits might lead to these survivorship curves? | Type 1: steady survivorship for a long time (large mammals). Type 2: constant mortality rate over time (uniform death rate). Type 3: low survivorship rate at the early part of life cycle (oysters shell) |
| What is the difference between semelparity and iteroparity? | Semelparity is one shot reproduction (salmon) and iteroparity is a repeated reproduction through lifetime |
| What are some factors that could lead to evolution of semeparity and iteroparity? | Semiel→ low offspring survival. Itero→ stable environment. |
| What are some of the life history trade offs due to increased reproduction rates? | Trade-offs: increase in reproduction comes with the cost of parental survival (due to limited resources, decrease offspring survival) Increae in reproduction leads to a decrease in the number of surviving parents |
| What is carrying capacity? | the number of individuals that an environment can support |
| What is the equation for exponential growth? | Expo: dN/dt = rmaxN (N = indv, rmax= rate of growth, dN/dt = instantaneous growth rate over time) The slope of the graph will be steeper the larger the rate of growth. |
| What is the equation for logistic growth? | Log = dN/dt = rmax (K-N/K) |
| What is the behavior of the logistic growth curve? | as N gets close to K, the curve will flatten, if N = K the curve is totally flattened, If N is greater than K, the population size will decrease until K is reached. Carrying capacity: the number of individuals that an environment can support |
| What are r-selected species? | selection favors individuals with high reproduction rates (affected most strongly by density independent factors,if there are few individuals, exhibit exponential growth, yound at 1st reproduction, short lifespan, little to no parent care, small offspring |
| What are k-selected species? | organisms adapted to living at or near carrying capacity (exhibit logistic growth, age at 1st reproduction old, long life span, extensive parental care, more prone to extinction (trees |
| What is the difference between density independent and density dependent factors? | independent: factors that regulate population growth regardless of population size (natural disasters, severe weather conditions) dependent: factors that cause growth rate to slow with an increase in density (disease, resource availability,predation) |
| What is the Allee effect? | Allee effect: the growth rate increases as population size increases ( exception to density dependent factors ) |
| Describe the snowshoe hare-lynx and the wolf-moose examples of population dynamics. How are the two cases similar? How are they different? What are some causes of the dynamics? | SHL: the number of indviduals in each population drastically increased than decreased about every 10 years, causes cyclical pattern. POPULATION SIZE IS DYNAMIC |
| What is a biological community? | is an assemblage of populations of various species living close enough for potential interaction. |
| What is a niche? | a role in the community, all uses of abiotic and biotic resources |
| What is the difference between a fundamental and realized niche? | Fundamental: entire niche that species is capable of using. Realized: actual environment conditions that species uses |
| Describe the Joseph Connell barnacle study. What conclusions can be drawn from this experiment? | Interspecific competition on specie’s niche. Occupied fundamental nice after competing species was removed. When competition is removed fundamental and realized niche are identical. |
| Describe the strategies that prey species use to avoid predation ? | Chemical Defense: monarch butterflies eat poison, making it poisonous. Aposematic coloration: warning coloration. Camofluage. Mimicry: mimic for instance a toxic species |
| What are the two components of diversity? | Number of species present and relative abundance of each species |
| What is the difference between a food chain and a food web? | Web is not isolated in chains, but connect to eachother in webs. A given food species can feed into more than one trophic level |
| What controls the length of food chains? | Energetic hypothesis: the inefficency of energy transfer limits length of chain (only 20% transferred) |
| What are dominant and keystone species in a community? What are some examples of the effects of their removal? | Dominant: those species in a community that are most abundant or have the greatest biomass. Keystone: exert a strong influence on the structure of biological communities through crucial niches they occupy |
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